AN ANALYSIS OF MANAGEMENT PRACTICES OF THE HEADTEACHERS IN SEVEN SELECTED FLOOD PRONE PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN MWANDI DISTRICT, ZAMBIA.

BY

MATAKALA MUBITA HONEST

A thesis submitted to the University of Zambia in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of Master of Education in Educational Management.

UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA AND ZIMBABWE OPEN UNIVERSITY

LUSAKA
2018
COPYRIGHT DECLARATION
All rights reserved. No part of this dissertation may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system, transmitted in any form by electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise before seeking prior permission from the author or University of Zambia/Zimbabwe Open University.

©2018 Matakala Mubita Honest  

	
DECLARATION
I, Matakala Mubita Honest do declare that this dissertation represents my own work and that it has not in part or in  whole been  presented  as  material  for award  of  any  Masters degree  at  this  or any other University. Where other people’s work have been quoted, full acknowledgements have been rightly indicated in form of full references.
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CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL
This thesis/ dissertation of Matakala Mubita Honest, has been approved as fulfilling the requirements or partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Master of Education in Educational Management by the University of Zambia and Zimbabwe Open University.

Signed: …………………………….                Date:  ………………………………..
Signed: …………………………….                Date:  ………………………………..
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DEDICATION
I would like to dedicate this study to my brother Charles Matakala, my late mother and father, for inculcating in me a spirit of selflessness and patience. Colleagues and relatives who took time from their busy schedule to help me throughout my study.

ABSTRACT

The study examined an analysis of the management practices of the headteachers in seven selected flood prone Primary schools in Mwandi district. The aim of this study was to assess strategies head teachers used to enhance learning in seven selected flood prone primary schools in Mwandi district. These strategies used included community mobilization in constructing wooden bridges. The other strategy as an objective used by headteachers to enhance learning was to listen to a flood warning signal which was installed by government through the disaster management and mitigation unit at Kasaya Bridge. Flood mitigation measures employed by the headteachers included offering shelter to weekly or monthly borders especially those who came from far flung areas. The use of oxcarts when ferrying learners to and from school was also used as a flood mitigation measure. Using alternative routes by learners when going to school in the light of seasonal floods was another flood mitigation measure used as well as listening to water birds as signal for onset of floods.Headteachers disseminated information about water birds appearance in the skies –an indication of the onset of seasonal floods. 

Flood coping measures involved adjusting the school calendar so that the affected learners could learn during school holidays. Home based teaching of the affected learners of seasonal floods was highly encouraged by headteachers. Revival of linkages between the head -teachers and functional local disaster management units were encouraged as well. Learners were taught safe swimming methods in order to survive the onslaught of seasonal floods as enshrined in the revised physical education and sports curriculum. The methodology used was a descriptive one that was carried out. The research instruments used in the study were semi- structured interview guides and observations. The information of the study was sourced from (7) headteachers in the affected schools, (7) village headmen, (3) members of the Red Cross, (1) Council Secretary, (1) Area Councillor,(1) Council chairperson and(7) members of the Parent Teacher Committee respectively. It was concluded that seasonal floods did not only make learning difficult for learners but it also affected the local communities in which these schools are situated as infrastructure was destroyed, families got displaced subjecting them to contracting diseases among others. It was also noted that seasonal floods brought advantages to the locals as flood water was harvested and used during dry season. It is further recommended that this research could be implored further by conducting other research studies especially in schools within the district that seasonally experience floods which were not reached. This is so because the research findings may not be wholly representative of what goes on in other flood prone primary schools in the same district. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to express my profound gratitude and appreciation to the following people who greatly helped me throughout my study; God almighty who enabled me finish undertaking the research with provision of good health despite hurdles which i faced, Dr. E Mbozi, my supervisor, who guided me throughout the research. She motivated me, provided moral support, guidance and ensured that all necessary steps in research writing were done effectively and efficiently so that a logical conclusion was arrived at successfully. The Area Councillor, Mr. Mwenda, who helped me in distributing the structured interview guides to the target population. Mr. Bhenkele, Headteacher-Aibelilwe Primary School, Mr.Pilaelo, headteacher-Alibuzwi Primary School, Mrs.Namakando-Sikuzu Primary School, Mr.Mwelwa-Situlu Primary school, Mr.Kambuya-Mabumbu Primary School, Mrs Mate-Loanja Primary school, Mr. Kunyanda Kent- for providing shelter to me during the time i conducted the study. All the mentioned headteachers greatly helped me in providing the much needed information on my study. The participants such as the Parent Teachers Committee Members, Red Cross, Village headmen to mention but a few did render much needed help to ensure that data was collected and well analysed. 

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Content                                                                                                                                          Page 
Copyright Declaration ……………………………….………..……..……….……………………..... i Declaration……………………………………………………………...…………………………ii
Certificate of Approval ….……………………….…………………………..……………………… iii 
Dedication………………………………………………………...……..……………...……………. iv
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………..…….v
Acknowledgements ……………………….………………………………..……………….……......vi 
List of Tables …………………………………….…………………………………….…………....viii 
List of figures ………………………………….……………………………………….………..…....ix 
List of abbreviations and Acronyms……………………………….……………………….………….x 

CHAPTER ONE 
1.0 INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………..….………………..1 
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY………………………………..….……………………...1 
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM…………………………..………………......………….1 
1.3 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY………………………………….………………………..……..2 
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY………………………………….…………………..………2 
1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS…………………………………………..………….……………2 
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY……………………………….…………………….……2 
1.7 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY…………………………………….…………………..…..3 
1.8 DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY……………………………………..……………….…3 
1.9 ASSUMPTIONS OF THE STUDY ……………………………….…..………………….….3 
1.10 OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS…………………....………….…….…………………….3 
1.11 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK……………………………….………………….………..4 
1.12 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK …………………………..…………..….……….………5 

CHAPTER TWO 
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………..…………….…………..……….7 - 26 

CHAPTER THREE 
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 
3.0 INTRODUCTION………………………………….…………………..……………………27 
3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN………………………………………..……………………..……….27 
3.2 TARGET POPULATION……………………………………..………..……………………27 
3.3 SAMPLE SIZE …………………………………………...…….…………………..……….27 
3.4 SAMPLING PROCEDURES…………………………………………..……………………28 
3.5 RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS………………………………………..……………………..28 
3.6 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES…………………………………….………………28 
3.7 DATA ANALYSIS…………………………………………………………..………………28 
3.8 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS………………………………..………..………………….29 

CHAPTER FOUR 
4.0 PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS ……………..……..……………….………..……….30-48 
4.1 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS…………………………..…………………………………49-50 

CHAPTER FIVE 
5.0 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS…………………………………..…………...…………..51-56 
6.1 SUMMARY ………………………………….……………….………………………....57-59 

CHAPTER SIX 
6.2 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS……………..………………60-62 
7.0 CONCLUSION……………………………………………….……………...………….63-64 
7.1 RECOMMENDATIONS …………………………………..………………………………65 
REFERENCES……………………………….…………………………………….……….66-70 
APPENDICES A-G ………………………………………………………………….……..71-84  

                                                            LIST OF TABLES
Table: 1 	Seasonal Flood Mitigation Measures ………………………..………….……….45 
Table: 2 	Seasonal Flood Copying Measures ………………....……………………..…….46 
                                                     LIST OF FIGURES                                                        Page
Figure: 1 Conceptual Framework …...............................................................................................4 
Figure: 2 Theoretical Framework ……………………………………..………………………….5 
Figure: 3 Water tanks used to harvest water during seasonal floods at Sankolonga Primary School …………………………………………………………………………….……………34 
Figure: 4 A Water tank at Sankolonga Primary School………………………………………….35 
Figure: 5 A Flood Warning Signal at Kasaya Bridge …………………………....…...…………40 
Figure: 6 A wooden Bridge at Aibelilwe Primary School ………………………...…….………42 
Figure: 7 A Wooden Bridge at Aibelilwe Primary School …………………………...….……...42 
Figure: 8 A Rural Health Post at Sankolonga Primary School…………………………………..43 
Figure: 9 A 1x3 classroom block at Sankolonga Primary School……………………………….44 
Figure:10 A Housing unit for weekly borders at Sankolonga Primary School………………….47 

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS 

SF                  						Seasonal Floods 
CM                				Community Mobilisation 
SFCM 	          Seasonal Flood Coping Measures 
MP                		Management Practice 
FMM            		Flood Mitigation Measures 
WFB            		 Wooden Footbridge 
DMMU 	        Disaster Management & Mitigation Unit 
FWS             		 Flood Warning System 
RCM            		 Red Cross Members 
HT                		 Headteachers 
CS                 		Council Secretary 
CC                Council Chairperson 
AC                		Area Councillor 
LDMS          	Local disaster Management Systems 
VH               	Village Headmen 
FPA              		Flood Prone Areas 
MD              		 Mwandi District 
ARI 		             Acute Respiratory Infection 
ITNs            		 Insecticide Treated Nets 
KRCS          Kenya Red Cross Society 
NFI              		 Non Food Items 
GOK 		           Government of Kenya 
DRT            		 Disaster Response Team 
KRCR        	 Kenya Red Cross Report 
UNISDR     	United Nations International Strategy on Disaster Reduction 
ADPC 	        Asian Disaster Preparedness Centre 
UNICEF 	    United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund 
SADC 		        Southern Africa Development Committee 
IRI              		International Research Institute 
FFWRS 	     Flood Focusting Warning & Response System 
ARI            		Acute Respiratory Infections Disaster Management Committees 
PTC           		Parent Teacher Committee 
FSL            		Full Supply Levels

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUTION
1.0 Overview  
This research delved more on the seasonal floods which affects some selected Primary schools in Mwandi district of western Province. At the time of writing this research, some selected schools in Mwandi district were experiencing seasonal floods due to heavy rains which resulted in experiencing floods. These schools included; Alibuzwi, Aibelilwe, Sikuzu, Mabumbu, Loanja, Situlu and Sankolonga. Thus this research looked an analysis of management practices of the headteachers in some selected flood prone Primary schools in Mwandi district. A (USAID,2009) on extreme climate and weather report in Zambia, suggested that often these normally have severe socio-economic impacts such as loss of lives and livelihoods, food, water and energy scarcity, and adverse impacts on human health and the environment. As such, Mwandi as a district has not been spared by seasonal floods either and so this study was based on the analysis of management practices of the headteachers in selected Primary schools in Mwandi district. 
1.1 Background to the study 
Management practices generally refer to the working methods and innovations that managers use to improve the effectiveness of the working system,https/www.igi-global.com.According to Henri Fayol, these management functions include; Organising, Controlling, Coordination, Commanding  and  Planning.  Past  studies  done  in  Zambia  on  floods  and  schooling  by Siamwanza (2012), Chisola (2012), and outside Zambia such as those done by Oundo in Kenya (2011), Mudavanhu (2014) in Zimbabwe and Akello (2011) Kenya, appear to have focused on the effects of floods on student learning in public Secondary Schools and its preparedness, it is not clear on the   management practices of the headteachers in flood prone Primary schools. This study focused on the management practices of the headteachers in seven flood prone Primary schools in Mwandi district, in line with the Seventh National Development Plan on climate  change  and Africa  Union  (AU) Agenda  2063  which  support  good  management practices in schools.  
1.2 Statement of the problem 
Seasonal floods have potential to disrupt teaching and  learning, Oundo (2011), selected Primary schools in Mwandi district are no exception.  Researches done by Siamwanza, B (2009), Zambia Rapid Impact Assessment Report (2007) focused on the adaptability of the 
Tonga to ecological settings, effects and extent of the floods on housing, education, health, 
food and it is not clear on management practices of the headteachers in flood prone Primary 
 schools. This study therefore inquired on the management practices of the headteachers in the seven  flood  prone  Primary  schools  in  Mwandi  district,  in  line  with  the  Sustainable Development Goals (MDGS) number 3 which is talking about good health and sustainable development goal number four which entails provision of quality education. 
1.3 The purpose of the study 
The purpose of the study was to add to the existing literature on viable management practices 
in the light of seasonal floods in Primary	 	schools of Mwandi in particular, Zambia and the 
entire world in general. 
1.4 Objectives of the study  
The study aimed at achieving the following objectives; 
1.	 To assess strategies headteachers use to enhance learning in seven selected flood prone 
Primary schools in Mwandi district. 
2.	 To establish flood mitigation measures employed by headteachers in seven selected 
flood prone Primary schools in Mwandi district. 
3.	 To assess flood coping measures employed by headteachers in seven selected flood 
prone Primary schools in Mwandi district.   

1.5 Research questions 
(i) What strategies do headteachers put in place to enhance learning in seven selected flood prone Primary schools in Mwandi district? 
(ii)What flood mitigation measures are employed by headteachers in seven selected flood prone Primary schools in Mwandi district? 

(iii)How do flood coping strategies employed by the headteachers help resolve seven flood prone Schools Primary in Mwandi district? 
1.6 Significance of the study 
It is hoped that the outcomes of the study would provide useful information that can help headteachers in implementing viable strategies in the light of seasonal floods in Primary schools.  It is  further hoped that the  findings  of the research  will help government  and 
stakeholders in enhancing policies on seasonal floods in flood prone Primary schools.   
1.7 Limitations of the study  
The findings in this study may not necessarily reflect a general occurrence of floods in other Primary schools in Mwandi district which experience seasonal floods as well. However, the findings could be subjected to other interpretations. Consequently, there is need for further research to be carried out in other flood prone primary schools within the same district. 

 1.8 Delimitation of the study 
This study only confined itself to 7 (seven) seasonally flood prone Primary schools located in Mwandi district. The study also targeted (7) seven Primary school headteachers in the Seven Primary schools identified for research work. Stakeholders such as PTC i.e. seven (7) members of  the  Parent  Teacher  Committees  (PTCs),  (3)  three  Civic  leaders  such  as  the  Council chairperson, or Council Secretary and Councillor, (3) three members of the Red Cross and 7 village headmen were sought after as respondents. 
1.9 Assumptions of the study 
The researcher assumed that in the (7) seven Primary schools which are seasonally prone to floods in Mwandi district, headteachers have an in depth knowledge on management practices of redressing the issue of seasonal floods. It is further hoped that the target respondents will give vital and accurate information towards successful conduction of the research.    
1.10 Operational definitions 
Management  Practices  –	generally  refers  to  the  working  methods  and  innovations  that 
managers use to improve the effectiveness of the working system,https//www.igi-global.com. 
Flood Prone - 	refer to areas in which a large amount of water is likely to temporarily cover an 
area of land that is usually dry.  

This  study  dwelt  on  defining  terms  which  were  used  in  the  research  paper.  The  term	 
management  has  a  number  of  definitions.  Web  Finance  Inc.  (2018) 
www.businessdictionary.com defines management as the organisation and coordination of the 
activities of a business in order to achieve defined goals. It is often included as a factor of production  along  with  machines,  materials  and  money.  According  to https//www.co.zm/Cambridge University Press, the term ‘practice’ is defined as something that is usually or regularly done often as a habit, tradition or custom. It also meant the act of doing something regularly or repeatedly to improve your skill at doing it.However, the International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies,www.ifrc.org/en/what-we- explained disaster as a sudden calamitous event that seriously disrupts the functions of a community or society and causes human, material and economic or environmental losses that exceed the country’s or society’s ability to cope using its own resources. Flood is a rising and overflowing of a body of water especially into normally dry land for instance, the flood inundated the whole 
area, or floods could be a large amount of water covering an area of land that is usually dry, Merriam-Webster.com.Flooding occurs when there is an overflow of a large amount of water 

 beyond its normal confines. Large populations live in the coastal areas where they are exposed 
to flooding, Jongman et al (2012). 

1.11 Conceptual framework  

 

HEADTEACHERS’ MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

   	

Coordination

Organising

Controlling

Conducive Learning environment

 

 
Figure: 1 

 
The conceptual framework depicts management practices of the headteachers in some flood prone Primary schools in Mwandi district. It used Henri Fayol’s five management functions where according to research findings, headteachers in the seven flood prone primary schools of Mwandi district practised various management practices as shown above. Coordination as a management strategy was used by headteachers in a quest aimed at enhancing learning. Coordination entails working hand in hand with community members especially during the time of seasonal floods. 
The headteachers worked flat out in mobilising communities by building bridges which collapsed following torrential downpours. Another management practice done by headteachers in the seven selected flood prone primary schools was organising. Headteachers ably organised the locals in ensuring that learners did not miss out on school. A case in point was the working together seen at Loanja primary school where the community came together to make a big canoe  which  was  used  to  ferry  learners  from  home  to  school.  Controlling  was  another 
management practice that headteachers used in the flood prone primary schools in Mwandi 
district. Headteachers were at the centre of all progressive initiatives which culminated into 
 reducing and coping with the effects of seasonal floods. Therefore, coordination, controlling and organising led to the culmination of conducive learning environment of the learners at the seven  selected  seasonal  flood  prone  primary  schools  namely  Sankolonga,  Mabumbu, Aibelilwe, Alibuzwi, Sikuzu, Situlu and Loanja.       

1.12 Theoretical Framework by Henri Fayol 

CONTROLLING

PLANNING

CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING

ORGANISING

COORDINATING

    

COMMANDING

PROBLEM 

COOR 
Figure: 2. 

The above theoretical framework was adopted from Psychologist Henri Fayol.Henri Fayol in his management functions came up with five major	 	management functions. Henri Fayol’s theory of Management was chosen because it is in line with the strategies headteachers employed in the light of seasonal floods in flood prone primary schools in Mwandi district. Planning  which  is  looking  ahead  and  required  participation  of  the  entire  organisation. Headteachers planned with teachers and community members on how to go about mitigating and finding viable coping measures with seasonal floods. Organising-Organisational structures with good division of functions and tasks are crucial to an organisation. Headteachers and all stakeholders involved mobilised resources to reduce the consequences of seasonal floods. 

Commanding is giving orders and clear working instructions to the subordinates so that a given task is accomplished. Headteachers took a lead in commanding people in doing various works aimed at creating a conducive learning environment for learners in the light of seasonal floods. 
Coordinating which is harmonisation of organisational activities played a huge role as well. 
People carried out different  tasks in  a coordinated way as the headteachers  supervised.  Controlling entails certifying whether everything was going according to the plan or not. Activities were carried out in conformity with the designed plan on reducing the telling effects of seasonal floods in the seven selected seasonal floods. Headteachers were able to control the flow of activities in line with the plan. Henri Fayol’s theory of Management was seen as the ideal theoretical framework of this study because it is in line with the strategies, mitigation and flood coping measures headteachers employed in view of seasonal floods in flood prone primary schools in Mwandi district. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 CHAPTER TWO 
      LITERATURE REVIEW 
2.0 Introduction 
This chapter looks at literature review. The literature carried out relates to an analysis of the management practices of the headteachers in seven seasonally flood prone Primary schools in Mwandi district. The Primary schools which are seasonally affected by floods where the research was conducted included; Mabumbu, Situlu, Sankolonga, Aibelilwe, Alibuzwi, Sikuzu and Loanja. This chapter mainly looked at four phases which headteachers engage in regarding management practices (MP) of the headteachers (HT) in (7) seven flood prone Primary schools in Mwandi district (MD). These included stakeholders’ support which consists of the PTCs (Parent Teacher Committees), the role of Civic leaders i.e. the Council Secretary (CC), Council Chairperson (CC), Area Councillor (AC), Red Cross members (RCM), Village headmen (VH). The collaborative efforts of the above mentioned players lead to the culmination of a conducive learning environment for learners. 
It must be stated here that the issue of floods in Zambia in particular, region, Africa and the world at large has posed serious challenges to humanity. Many researches on floods have been carried out by many scholars across a wide spectrum with focus on the impact and its management. It is for this reason that the researcher believes that most of the research done on floods have not really talked on the analysis of the headteachers in managing floods in Primary schools and so it is against this scenario that this research dwelt more on the analysis of management practices of the headteachers in selected flood prone Primary schools in Mwandi district, western Province of Zambia. The findings of those who carried out research on floods may not necessarily reflect a general occurrence of floods and its mitigation to that of Mwandi’s flood prone Primary schools. 
A research done by Yande (2009) mainly focused on the impact of floods on the socio- economic livelihoods of people in Sikaunzwe community in Kazungula district, southern Province of Zambia. His major emphasis was on the Sikaunzwe community while this one dwelt on management practices of the headteachers in the seven selected flood prone Primary schools in Mwandi district.Similarly,beyond Zambia’s borders, another research on floods was done by the department of research and public awareness under the ministry of disaster management and refugee affairs in the republic of Rwanda focused on the impacts of floods and landslides on the socio-economic development profile- a (2012) case study that was carried 
out in Musanze district. The impact of floods and its magnitude in Rwanda as carried out by 
the department of research and public awareness in that country may not be the same as those  

 being experienced in Mwandi district and the research findings may not be the same as those which were carried out in Mwandi district’s seven flood prone Primary schools. 
Another research on floods was done by Kimei Monica (2013) which looked at the effects of flood disaster preparedness on learning in Public Secondary Schools in Bunyala district in Busia County in Kenya. Again Kimei dwelt on the effects of flood disaster preparedness on learning in Public Secondary Schools whereas this study aligned itself primarily on the analysis of management practices of the headteachers in selected flood prone Primary schools in Mwandi district. However, Gloria E, (2015) looked at theorising Research on Educational Opportunities in Schools-a case study of flood prone areas (FPA) in Western Kenya. Gloria’s research emphasised attempts to frame sufficient strategies or frameworks to enhance the attainment of educational opportunities in schools that exist in flood-prone areas in Kenya. However, Njeru, (2004) studied financial management practices of the headteachers in Public Secondary Schools in central division, Embu district Kenya. His research findings were not similar with the researcher’s findings and only applied to the Kenyan scenario. According to the Rapid  Flood  Impact Assessment  Report (2007:6) done by the  Zambia Vulnerability Assessment  Committee,  stated  that  following  reports  of  floods  from  various  districts countrywide, the Disaster Management and Mitigation Unit (DMMU) commissioned a Rapid Flood  Impact  Assessment  in  February.  The  overall  objective  of  the  assessment  was  to determine the effects and extent of the floods on housing, infrastructure, health, food access, water and sanitation, education, crops and livestock in the affected districts. The DMMU consisted 12 teams, which visited 41 districts in all the nine (ten now) Provinces from 21st February to 5th  March 2007. 
The assessment was conducted with support of the Disaster Management Committees (DMC) in the affected areas. Their findings indicated that no significant change of concern was observed in the prevalence rates of common diseases such as malaria, diarrhoea and Acute Respiratory Infections (ARI) in almost all the districts. From the 41 districts assessed according to the report, 29% reported high malaria prevalence rates while 32% reported high diarrhoea prevalence rates. There was no change observed in ARIs.Availability of Insecticide Treated Nets (ITNs) and community level health campaigns were the main attributes for the low malaria prevalence. In some areas, the report indicated that floods have also led to straying of wild animals that have caused damage to crops in Western and Eastern Provinces.Sesheke and Shangombo   in Western Province and most Southern Province reported a prolonged dry spell 
of at least 3 weeks. On the global front, floods such as Elnino and Katrina are said to have 
devasted America in the recent past with varying degree of consequences .The Rapid Flood  Impact Assessment Report (2007) in Zambia stated that exposure to diarrhoea-causing agents as a result of floods is frequently related to use of contaminated water and unhygienic practices related to food preparation, hand washing and excreta disposal. Out of the total districts visited, 
32.	 reported high diarrheal prevalence while 17% and 29% reported low and moderate rates respectively. Most of the districts 24% reported either low rates or no change in the prevalence of Acute Respiratory Infections (ARI) Compared to 22%, who reported high prevalence between January and February, 2007.The low prevalence rates for the common childhood illinesses   was attributed to integrated public health interventions currently being implemented at district level through the Child health week and routine outreach activities. One of the most frequent disasters in Sub-Saharan Africa is flooding. Flooding occurs when there is an overflow of a large amount of water beyond its normal confines. 
Rabalao (2012) in Author (2007:4) stated that in the study of the Water Commission on National Flood Now casting System, the aims of the project which were built on previous research and development were; To put in place a national flood forecasting system which provided alerting signals to the people about flood onset. The other one was to use the system routinely, to use the system to alert vulnerable people, industry and disaster managers and to have recent information from satellites, radars and gauge estimation of rainfall. To provide flood nowcasts or forecasts to sensitise regions in as much detail as required coupled with interacting with local disaster managers and local authorities to convert flows to inundation levels. Further it provided training initiatives for local disaster managers so as to cope with floods and its effects.   
These will give warning of floods and the necessary steps can be taken to mitigate flood disasters. Charles (1997) postulated that ‘People at Risk and Strategies for Prevention’ report that floods are the most common natural disaster which causes large numbers of deaths. The study shows that floods are caused by different issues and with varying levels of consequences. It is advanced that a specific flood in a reach can result in flood damage depending on the position of human activities in the flood plain, the type of human activities in the flood plain and  the  structural  and  non-structural  flood  control.  Smith  and  Boardman  (1989  s.p.) comprehended that flood events leave visual evidence to be used in attempting to reconstruct flood history. Consequently, observation as a method can be used relating to destruction of artefacts such as walls and bridges. Disaster relief emergency fund (2013:9) stated that the people of Lozi (Barotseland) of the upper Zambezi wetlands in Western Zambia shifted from 
the flooded plains around March and April of every year to upper land homes for them to escape the hazardous floods which threatened their lives and property. Floods have been in existence for as long as human beings existed. Rabalao (2012:37) mentioned that in Buffalo Creek 1972, one hundred and twenty five people died in the floods and thousands lost their homes; the community was crowded into trailer homes. That resulted in a collective trauma which lasted longer than the individual trauma.Gruntfest (1995) reported that after a year and half of the event, 570 survivors still suffered emotional disturbance. Elsewhere, Ocha (2010:1) reported  that  in  one  of  the  Ugandan  districts,  floods  submerged  crop  fields  and  vital infrastructure like roads, schools and houses. That affected about 33,305 people largely through loss of crops. However, Southern (1979:175) argued that the impact of floods is dependent on the mode of life and economies of the affected communities, the frequency and magnitude of the  rainfall,  and  the  willingness,  capacity  on  understanding  of  the  dangers  involved  by communities at risk. 
On flood coping strategies, Rabalao (2012:38) in the wake of social, psychological and economic impact of flooding stated that communities of Ga-motla and Ga-Moeka in the Moretele district North West Province, South Africa, have concepts of coping mechanisms and these are; Communities do not do anything about floods but learn to live with them. The usage of non-structural measures like flood insurance were used. The usage of intensive and extensive structural technologies, for example flood levees, terracing of land and soil conservation, joint usage of non-structural measures and structural technologies which are believed to be the best alternative Dewis (2007:15). 
In the  case of  floods in  the Bagmati  and Rohini basins in  Nepal,  families tend to  use coping(CM) measures and strategies for floods as follows: saving themselves and valuables, saving food and supplies, saving animals and their fodder and in cases where there is severe flooding, families release their livestock and move to safer places (Case Studies: Adaptive Capacity and Livelihood Resilience s.I.127).On the other hand, ALNAP ( 2008:3) argued that coping  with  recurrent  flooding,  reciprocal  support  among  neighbours,  immediate  family members and wider kinship networks is a vital safety. Research findings indicated that flood forecasting and warning are very beneficial. 
Parker, Tunstall and Wilson (2005:1) asserted that flood forecasting and warning provides a basis for warning and for people to make informed decisions to reduce losses by floods. Further, reduction of the adverse impact of flooding depends on the three elements which are; the nature of the flood event, the development of effective flood forecasting, warning and response system (FFWRS) and the characteristics of the flood. Flood mitigation measures play a significant role in reducing flood damage. 

 On  Strategic  Approach  to  Flood  Management,  (Entec,  2006:29)  mentioned  that  flood mitigation measures have to be considered at the early strategic stages in order to reduce and manage the flood risks, especially those associated with development. Metropolitan Manila s.a.:2, 3) alluded that Marikina City in the Philippines has succeeded with their flood mitigation programme which has drastically decreased the exposure of floods to residences, businesses and critical facilities. This was achieved by the city’s priority projects to construct roads, construction and rehabilitation, massive dredging operations, demolition of obstruction caused by  illegal  settlers  and  the  continued  improvement  to  existing  diversion  channels  and interceptors. Capacity building in the management of disasters such as floods is very key in any flood threatened situation.Samarakoon (s.a.9) is of the view that capacity building could help to close the gap in disaster management by sharing and transferring of knowledge, recognition of the role of each stakeholder, increase in awareness among agencies and public, bringing of specific solutions for the country, development of coordination among main stakeholders and reduction of duplication of activities. In some parts of Africa, floods have been recorded as early as 330 B.C in Egypt along the plains of the river Nile where many Egyptians established settlements for farming and fishing activities Hoyt and Langbein, (1955). Although a number of floods  have occurred in ancient Africa, there are no available records kept about them since many societies were not as developed enough as the case is today.Amia and Goldstein(2008) reported  that negative impact of floods in Africa are felt in almost all parts  of  the  continent  except  for  the  desert  areas.  Their  impacts  include  destruction  of agricultural  products,  infrastructures  (buildings,  roads,  railways  and  bridges)  and  life (vegetation, animals as well as humans).Mozambique is one of the African countries that has experienced floods in the recent past.Ehrhart and Twena, (2006) reported that the extreme flood events in Mozambique highlight the country’s vulnerability to floods.The 1997/8 El Nino, for example, led to flooding and triggered a national emergency with severe food shortages, skyrocketing food prices, extensive food, cattle and cash crop losses. They further estimated that floods in 2001/1 affected 2.5 million people (the majority of whom were displaced) and triggered a staggering US$167 million emergency relief campaign and subsequently reduced the national growth from 8 to 2 percent.   According  to 	https://unfcc.in/cooperation support/least developed countries portal, stated that Mozambique’s high incidence of flooding is explained by two factors. First is the tropical cyclones that form in the South-Western Indian Ocean and sweep towards the country’s coast.Second,Mozambique is a ‘downstream’ country through  which high winds  and heavy rain leading to flooding. Thus, floods in Mozambique have occurred every two to three years along the major rivers of Incomati, Limpopo, Save,  Buzi, Pungue, Zambezi and Licungo.It is stated that the severity of the flooding is decided by the  rainfall  both  in  the  country  and  in  the  other  catchment  areas  of  the  rivers  outside Mozambique.  Conversely,  the  floods  of  2000  were  one  of  the  costliest  disasters  in Mozambique’s history. The floods were caused by two successive cyclones: Cyclone Elnino in late February 2000 and Cyclone Hudah in mid-April 2000.Heavy and persistent rain across Southern Africa resulted for the first recorded time in the simultaneous flooding of the Limpopo,Incomati,Umbeluzi,Save,Buze and Pungue rivers.Atleast 700 people died,650,000 were internally displaced and 4.5 million were affected, totalling a quarter of Mozambique’s population,  Climate  Risk  Management  in  Africa:  Learning  From  Practice,  International Research Institute for Climate & Society(IRI) (2007).  
The  magnitude  of  the  floods  was  overwhelming  and  the  poverty  of  the  majority  of Mozambique’s people added to their vulnerability. However, it is noted that the country’s flood planning and preparedness with climate information provided by the Mozambique National Institute of Meteorology and SADC-Climate Services Centre provided the framework for massive international support and management of the disaster was an eye-opener to the complexities of disaster management of such a magnitude. Adamson (1983:24) stated that extreme events such as floods over Southern Africa have resulted in loss of life, massive damage to property, crops and livestock and disrupted communications. The risk of events such as floods in the sub-continent may fairly be small but their increased occurrence, frequency and magnitude within the entire continent, the world over has been historically disastrous. However, Theron (2007) indicated that at least 20 countries in Africa were affected by floods. These countries included Benin, Algeria, Burkina Faso Ethiopia, Cote d’Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Uganda, Guinea, Kenya, Liberia, Mauritania, Nigeria, Rwanda, Sierra Leon, Senegal, Togo, Sudan and Mali. Reports estimated that approximately 300 people in 20 countries had died in floods during a two months period, noting that the inaccessibility of the affected areas had made it extremely difficult to accurately access and verify the death toll. 
Carey (2003:122) added that human population worldwide are vulnerable to natural disasters. Certain conditions such as geographical location or people’s income level can affect the degree to which natural disasters impact people’s homes and livelihoods.Gao, et al.(2007:27) stated that although water shortages often grab the headlines, floods continue to be the most serious natural disaster in China. This is despite enormous efforts to construct structural engineering projects for flood control by the Chinese government. 
Douben, (2006:1) comprehended that since ancient times people have settled in flood prone 
areas due to perceived favourable geographic conditions which facilitate economic growth,  such as accessibility (transportation) and food production (fertile land). This fact enables many societies all over the world to protect vulnerable assets against floods. Yande (2012) asserted that the direct impacts of a flood are closely related to the depth of inundation of flood water. The extent of a flood therefore has a direct relationship for the recovery times of crops, pastures, social and economic dislocation impact to populations. Naturally, floods are the most costly and wide reaching of all natural hazards. They are responsible for up to 50,000 deaths and adversely  affect  some  75  million  people  on  average  worldwide  every  year,  Yande (2012:17).Disease outbreaks are common especially in less developed countries. Malaria and Typhoid outbreaks after floods in tropical countries are also common. It has been indicated that in India and Bangladesh alone 300 million people live in areas that are affected by floods, Nott (2006:57). 
Nott (2006:60) noted that physical damage to property is one of the major causes for tangible loss in floods. This includes the cost of damage to goods and possessions, loss of income or services in the floods aftermath and clean –up costs. Intangible losses include increased levels of physical, emotional and psychological health problems suffered by flood- affected people. Similarly, Know Risk (2005:74) noted that studies undertaken show that the economic impact of natural disasters shows a marked upward trend over the last several decades. It is believed that the hazards tend to hit communities in developing countries especially the least developed ones hence increasing their vulnerability and setting back their economic and social growth. The study indicated that social impacts include; drastic changes in people’s way of life, distortions of their culture, community, political systems, environment, health and wellbeing of the affected people, their personal property, rights, fears and aspirations are compromised. Similarly, Living with Risk, (2002:47) undertook a study in Scotland whose findings suggested that social impacts are linked to the level of wellbeing of individuals, communities and society at large. It includes aspects related to the level of literacy and education, the existence of peace and security, access to basic human rights, systems of good governance, positive traditional values,  knowledge  structure,  social  equity,  customs  and  ideological  beliefs  and  overall collective organisational systems. Additionally, in the wake of floods, some groups are more vulnerable than others mainly the less privileged in society. Commenting on the negative impact of floods, Good News Bible according to the book of Genesis 6 v 18-23 states that; 18  the water became deeper, and the boat drifted on the surface. 19 It became so deep that it covered the highest mountains; 20 it went on rising until it was about seven metres above the tops of the mountains.21Every living being on the earth died-every bird, every animal, and every person.22 everything on earth that breathed died due the floods. 23 The LORD destroyed  all living beings on the earth-human beings, animals, and birds. The only ones left were Noah and those who were with him in the boat. Generally this shows how floods can be disastrous though human beings have used floods to their advantage as indicated already.  
The study undertaken by the International Flood Initiative (2003) suggested that floods are the most taxing of water related natural disasters to humans, material assets as well as cultural and ideological resources affecting people and their livelihoods thus claiming tens of thousands of lives annually worldwide. Yande (2012:19) postulated that according to Australian experience, the emotional behaviour of many flood victims was shoking.The emotional cost attached to flooding was long lived. Follow-up studies found that about one-quarter still had not recovered from the emotional trauma of the event. Factors believed to have contributed to the non- recovery included the severity of the flooding, the degree of the resulting financial hardships, age and socio-economic status. Elderly people on low income whose houses deeply got flooded were the most ill-affected, Flood Management in Australia (1998:82). 
However, Sinclair and Pegram (2003:1) observed that floods cannot be prevented but their devastating effects can be minimised if advance warning of their impending are made available and easily accessed. With large increase in population and increasing urbanisation (mainly driven by poverty) there are many people living in informal settlements, which are often on flood plains as this is the only undeveloped land available near cities. It is noted that early warning information could, therefore, allow local disaster managers to rekindle their lost glory in the floods by taking vital steps which may significantly scale down loss of life and damage 
to property. In view of this, African Wildlife: Who is to blame for	 floods?(2000:24) as quoted 
by Yande(2012:21) pointed out that cumulative  impact of human activities without regard for nature has turned the recent floods from a natural phenomenon into a man-made disaster of epic proportions. Knowledge on how to cope with seasonal floods is vital during seasonal floods. 
Siamwanza, (2009) postulated that the local inhabitants (Barotse flood plain dwellers) have traditional indigenous knowledge about their ecological surroundings which enables them to adjust to the prevailing ecological conditions. He asserted that the locals use traditional indigenous knowledge to adapt to annual floods for example, they use spiders to predict high or normal floods, and the presence of many cobwebs is an indication that the coming season will be one of the heavy floods, Siamwanza (2012). People living in the Barotse flood plains of the Zambezi river have adapted to the floods in different ways. Some of the practices adopted as Charles (2004) pointed out that in fact most of the people build their homes on the‘‘mounds’’ (Mazulu), higher parts of the plain, so that the annual floods come after the summer  rains, the homesteads stand strong above the waters. Charles (2004) further comprehended that towards the height of the floods at the end of February or beginning of March, the inhabitants move for a few months to other homesteads constructed above the waterline on margins of the plain. They move to their temporal homesteads on the higher grounds together with their domestic animals and they remain there until the ebbing of the water in winter to enable them return to their traditional permanent homes in the plain. 
The roles and responsibilities of leaders in schools that are prone to seasonal floods as Emmanuel Oundo (2011:19) suggested is very important for the success of teaching and learning programmes in a school set up. Therefore, it is important for management to stimulate its members (team) because a person’s performance is determined not only by their ability but the motivation that they are given to do their very best at all times. Emmanuel Oundo (2011:19) in Bowes (2007) further stipulated that diversity in flood management is being viewed as a key means to strengthen the human capital of an organisation and improves overall performance. Seasonal  flood  prone  primary  schools  should  embrace  all  aspects  of  management  and leadership by formulating sound policies that can assist them to withstand the negative effects of floods which may have far-reaching consequences and greatly compromise the quality of teaching and learning, hence the engagement of management in mitigating the aftermath of floods. Bowes (2007) comprehended that schools like other organisations in flood prone areas today have to be more proactive rather than being reactive and in order for that to occur, management have to be dedicated in achieving this goal. Each member of the team should be involved in the everyday decision making and change to accelerate target performance. Brouwer, etal (2007:313) stated that Bangladesh is a highly flood prone country. Eighty (80) percent of the country consists of flood plains and several other minor rivers. These flood plains sustain a predominantly poor rural population. It is believed that every ten (10) years roughly one-third of the country gets affected by floods while catastrophic years such as 1988, 1998 and 2004, more than 60% of the country was inunded.Floods caused social disruptions and resulted in scarcity of drinking water as surface water got contaminated. Similarly, Dixit (2003:156) alluded that in Southern Nepal, flooding leads to large scale disruption of social and economic lives. The rivers bring large sediments whose deposition on agricultural land harms productivity. 
Therefore, management practices of the headteachers in this instance played a key role in ensuring that seasonal floods in seven selected flood prone primary schools in Mwandi district are mitigated and coped with. The coordinated efforts shown by headteachers together with 

 community  members  in  putting  up  measures  which  aimed  at  enhancing  learning  in  the seasonally flood prone primary schools spoke volumes on how united people can be in times 
of  adversity Headteachers  met with community  members to create a plan. When disaster strikes, family members may be home or away from home (A place outside your home, if the emergency requires you to vacate your home, one has to do that).This demonstrates how serious management practices were as used by headteachers in the seven seasonal flood prone primary schools in Mwandi district. 
Floods expose children to multiple health risks. Stagnant water exposes children to diseases such as cholera and malaria. Cholera was reported to be the most widespread illness causing loss of children’s lives. The second most common disease is malaria, which was also reported to be claiming the lives of children in the study area. Interviews conducted with health service officials indicated that they attend to cholera and malaria sicknesses more during the rainy season. This agrees with reports by the UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF) (2009) and Ochola (2009) that malaria and cholera are a health menace in flood zones and are aggravated by low socio-economic status. It was also revealed that more children die of these epidemics than any other disease, although figures supporting this could not be availed. 

Floods are usually known to cause damage school infrastructure and property such as furniture, books, classrooms and toilets. It was reported that every time they experience floods, some classroom walls and toilets collapse with roof tops blown off. This poses a danger to children who spend most of the working hours in school. Upon being asked about their safety during seasonal floods, children highlighted that because their classrooms have cracked walls they are always afraid and feel insecure. This is supported by Okuom et al.’s (2012) research findings indicated  that fear, insecurity and general high alert during floods reduced student’s attention to learning, resulting to poor performance. The collapsed toilets forced some children to resort to using the bush as toilets, leading to a high prevalence of cholera in schools as a result of water contamination and open defecation. These unfavourable learning conditions have forced some children to drop out from school whilst others choose to stay away. 
Most children reside in traditional dwellings with grass- thatched roofs. Such houses are prone to damage during flooding. During a field visit to one the slums in Western Kenya by Okello, it was observed that 90% of the households had lost at least a hut. Ochola, Eitel and Olago (2010), in their research in Kenya, also noted that homes are as vulnerable as schools, which 
compounds the effects of floods on school children. Research revealed that some children 

whose houses were affected by floods dropped out of school, whilst others stayed at home   trying to recover from the disaster impacts. This was said to increase the number of dropouts in the area and compromise the rights of children to education. Discussion Response to flood disasters in Chadereka. As a result of schools in Chadereka being vulnerable to flood disasters, the community embarked on developing strategies to respond to their impacts in order to reduce vulnerability of children.  
Some of the coping mechanisms sought included; absenteeism, early marriages, engaging in paid labour, infrastructure development, selling livestock and taking children out of school. Research findings highlighted that most parents could not afford school fees for their children of $10 per term, and they ended up taking their children away. Head teachers reported that their young daughters into marriage as a survival strategy, whilst some children were being forced into paid child labour to assist parents in getting food for the family. Research revealed that most children who drop out of school do so to work as house maids or herd cattle for boys. Selling of livestock is also one of the common coping mechanisms in the area. Most households own livestock and these act as a safety net in case of a disaster. However, it was revealed that most households do not sell livestock to pay school fees but to buy food stuffs. Although these coping mechanisms seem to be viable for households, they are threatening children’s lives as they made children to be out of school. Children were becoming increasingly vulnerable in the Zambezi Valley. 

Some positive response strategies to reduce seasonal floods do exist, often in the form of food aid from the government and non-governmental organisations such as the Red Cross and Plan International, among others. In the case of Zimbabwe, schools were in as far as seasonal floods were concerned, given free exercise and some textbooks from UNICEF Zimbabwe to ease the effects of disasters amongst children. To reduce the prevalence of malaria in the area, the region is fumigated on a yearly basis between September and December through the Ministry of Health and Child Care. 
With the help of community leaders and World Vision Zimbabwe, and using local resources, a foot bridge was also constructed to link the schools and the health centre with the community, to help children cross when going to schools in case of floods. However, it appears that many of these response mechanisms are not well coordinated because of  lack of resources and poverty in the community.From Some of the community’s response mechanisms, such as absenting and withdrawing children   from school, sending children for paid labour and 
marrying children  off early, increased the vulnerability of children to flood disasters. It was 
observed that upon visiting the study area 6 months after a storm had blown off a roof top at  one of the schools, it was discovered that nothing had been done to improve or renovate the buildings. Lack of resources was blamed for the delays in renovating the building. Besides lack of resources in the rural communities of Zimbabwe, disaster management is biased towards emergency response rather than mitigation. The tendency has been to wait and then start looking around for resources after floods or cyclones have hit communities (Musarurwa & Lunga 2012). Lack of resources to respond to emergencies is exposing children to increased risk of flood disasters. 
Most importantly, children are vulnerable to natural disasters. Children can be affected by disasters on their way to or from school, schools and homes can collapse and loss of livelihoods can lead to food insecurity, among others. Disasters may sometimes result in missed school and delayed academic progress, missed social opportunities and increased exposure to various life stresses such as illness (Peek 2008). As summarised in Okuom et al.’s (2012) framework, disasters  increase  the  vulnerability  of  children.  The  framework  showed  the  factors  that contribute to vulnerability, such as environmental, home, and infrastructural and student factors. The effects of disasters on school facilities must not be seen only in terms of the need to prevent catastrophic damage that may destroy the buildings but also in terms of preserving the lives of children and the old people women and men during disasters. The concept of school safety is not limited to preventing the collapse of school buildings in disasters, and ensuring the safety of teachers and students, but rather extends to disaster risk reduction (UNCRD 2009). The specific vulnerability of children has been highlighted by recent catastrophic events during seasonal floods. Research findings for example, indicated that in October 2005, an earthquake in Pakistan resulted in over 16 000 children being killed when schools collapsed. Similarly, in the Philippines, a landslide occurred on Leyte Island in February 2006, resulting in more than 200 school children being buried alive (Asian Disaster Preparedness Centre [ADPC] 2007; Peek 2008). According to UNCRD (2009), an earthquake that occurred in Gujarat in 2001 affected three million children. The potential impacts of these disasters are multiplied in developing countries, where the largest population demographic are children. 
Schools play a vital role in every community (Shaw & Kobayashi 2001; Stanley & Williams 
2000.	 and they need to be well secured and protected. The concept of school safety was given a major focus by the UN International Strategy on Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) during the 2006–2007 World Disaster Reduction Campaign, with the theme ‘Disaster reduction begins at school’. This theme was chosen precisely by UNISDR because it was in line with the Priority 
3	  of  the  Hyogo  Framework  for  Action  2005–2015,  which  stated  that  ‘Use  knowledge,
innovation and education to build a culture of safety and resilience at all levels’ (UNISDR  

 2007:9) and because schools are the best avenues for inculcating durable collective values and therefore suitable for building a culture of prevention and disaster resilience (ADPC 2007). The campaign identified the reasons for which a school should be made safe, namely, (1) safety 
–	 as school buildings can save lives, (2) shelter – as schools be utilised that all the schools are located along unmaintained roads, which are impassable during rainy season because of the floods. The bridges connecting the communities have been destroyed by floods, making them difficult to access by road. This reduced communication amongst the schools in the area. There was also lack of furniture in the schools, with children being forced to sit on the floor. This disrupted learning and could affect the concentration of children. It was observed that most of the floors where they sat were also dusty, exposing children to multiple risks such as respiratory diseases among others. 
In the same vein, some factors that contributed to the vulnerability of schools to flood disasters in the study area included the terrain, poor structures, geographical location, climate change, lack of building standards, poverty and lack of resources. School structures were built without building codes and were below standard, making them vulnerable to the compounding effects of floods. One hundred percent (100%) of all the schools had dilapidated facilities which were never maintained at all. Some had inadequate and temporary buildings. Two schools located in wetlands were normally flooded, whilst four were located at the confluence of Hoya and Musengezi Rivers making them more vulnerable to backflows of flood waters. The other four schools were located close to the river on meandering channels, which means that any change in the river channel could affect the schools in question. Although the issue of climate change was stated as a contributing factor with (35%) of the people agreeing, while, 65% disagreed that it led to vulnerability of schools. However, 100% agreed that because there was no enforcement of building codes and standards in the area, most of the schools were below standard. Apart from building codes and standards being enforced, research findings also indicated that poverty and lack of resources to maintain school structures made them vulnerable to seasonal flood disasters. 
Floods have also been blamed for loss of learning hours affecting the quality of education. In- depth interviews conducted indicated that most teachers were failing to cover the school syllabi both at primary and secondary schools. This was said to affect the performance of the children in this area, as they will sit for the national examinations with other pupils whose learning was never interrupted in any way. This is in line with Amer (2007) and Okuom et al.’s (2012) 
research findings that disasters result in teachers failing to complete the syllabi, leading to poor 
performance among learners. Apart from losing contact hours at school, children highlighted 

 that sometimes they did not attend school because rivers got flooded, as some of the bridges were destroyed by Cyclone Elnino in 2000, resulting in some communities being cut off from the rest.                           
In Kenya for instance, the long rain season predicted had resulted in enhanced rainfall over many  parts  of  the  country  since  its  onset  in  March  2010.  The  Kenya  Meteorological Department’s prediction of enhanced rainfall amounts in most parts of the country in January and February of 2010 was timely. This trend is expected to continue until June 2010, with above average rainfall amounts already evident in many parts of the country. Enhanced rainfall amounts have been recorded in several areas in the Coast, Rift Valley, North Eastern, Lake Basin, Central Highlands and Upper parts of Eastern Province resulting in  flash floods and landslides. The most affected districts due to seasonal floods included Tana River, Malindi, Mogotio, Narok, Maragua, Makindu, Nyatike, Nyakach, Nyando and parts of Nairobi.   
The Kenyan Red Cross Report ( KRCR) on seasonal floods, assessments reports  indicated that at least 66 deaths as a result of the rains either through floods, landslides or lightning were recorded. An estimated 7,525 households (44,270 people) were internally displaced by floods from their homes. The total number of affected population in the country stood at 111,743 people being internally displaced by seasonal floods.    
Destruction of infrastructure by floods threatened the speed of humanitarian response due to inaccessibility  of  some  heavily  flooded  areas.  A  major  concern  was  the  spread  of gastrointestinal  and  vector  borne  diseases  due  to  contamination  of  water  sources  and deteriorating hygiene conditions during floods. Furthermore, majority of those affected and displaced by floods were part of the population that was relying on relief aid following prolonged drought in 2009 that had affected over 3.8 million people in pastoral, agro-pastoral and marginal agricultural areas.    
Areas prone to mudslides and landslides have been put on high alert, among them Kakamega, Kisii, Murang’a and Nandi Hills Lower Eastern. Heavy rains in Nairobi, on 1 March 2010, were reported to have disaplaced about 46 households in Gando, Uthiru. The affected families were temporarily accommodated by friends, relatives and well-wishers. At least 30 pit latrines serving about 600 people in the area were flooded. Two people were drowned in flooded seasonal rivers in Kajiado. In Makindu, at least two houses were swept away by flood waters after River Kulie burst its banks on 10 March 2010. Sekeleni Primary School in Makindu was 
also affected and some pit latrines in Calvary Church collapsed posing a serious health risk to 

the locals. The Jomo Kenyatta International Airport (JKIA) area in Nairobi was also hit by a hailstorm accompanied with strong winds. Trees fell on the roads causing a major traffic jum up to along Mombasa Road. Hailstorms caused extensive damage to cars as well.     
Kitui and Kajiado districts were placed under flood alert as a result of increased rainfall amounts which were recorded in these areas including the Upper Eastern. In Isiolo, 200 households were displaced in Garfasa area in Garbatula District. On 4 March 2010, some 600 staff members working in tour lodges in Samburu were displaced after River Ewaso Nyiro broke its banks and flooded the Samburu National Park. Staff members sought refuge in nearby hills. In Moyale, strong winds in the area destroyed three classrooms and an administration block at St. Anne Primary School. At least 125 pupils and six teachers lost property of unknown value. In Dori Village in Moyale District, at least 66 people were displaced, 200 goats and 80 cattle were feared swept away by flood waters.   

A rain storm in Marsabit District on 7 March 2010 resulted in the untimely death of a person and displacement of an estimated 420 households. The most affected areas included; Burgabo, Tigo, Bubisa, Shegen and Chalbi. Two children drowned in Maua while playing in a water pool following heavy rains in the area.     
Some 169 households were affected in Moyale after heavy rains in Ethiopia resulted in flash floods from 15 to16 April 2010. Areas affected were Nana, Bor, Anona, Madoadi and Waye Goda, in Kinisa Location. A large water pan was destroyed by flood waters in the area causing destruction of a fruits and vegetable farm run by a self-help group. People living downstream of Wirwita Dam were advised by the Ethiopian authorities to evacuate from the area for fear of more floods.    
From 20 to 30 April 2010, over 2,000 households were displaced and evacuated after heavy rains caused widespread floods in Moyale and Sololo Districts. At least 120 huts were destroyed in Gadel and Godom and over 1,500 livestock animals were swept away. Two people drowned in the area. Fapante dam, which had about 1.3 million cubic meters of water in Ethiopia, is swollen. A warning of imminent floods has been issued to residents living around the dam.    
On 26 April 2010, some 35 households were displaced and moved to stay with relatives and friends in Mia Moja Village in Meru District. In Kangatia Village, one person was swept away by floods, but was rescued and taken to Nanyuki Hospital for treatment. A lorry was swept 
away by flash floods at Nyambera, Isiolo, on 30 April 2010 due to seasonal floods. A female teacher who was among 35 passengers aboard a bus, perished while 34 others were rescued by  the locals and volunteers from KRCS Meru Branch. Those injured were transferred to Meru Hospital. A land cruiser was swept away by floods, but there were no casualties.   
West Kenya (Nyanza and Western Provinces) in Nyanza, most rivers have been flowing above normal level, with River Nzoia flowing at 2.8m - just 0.2m from its flood alert level. Areas affected by floods in this area have been placed on alert by the local administration.  In Rachuonyo, rooftops of five classrooms in Dol Primary School were blown away by wind that  had hit the area including Nzoia on 1 March 2010. Trans was hit by mild floods on 10 March 2010 after receiving mild rainfall for two days. Namajalala Location comprising four villages namely Maliki, Sabwani, Nasiada and Duyanji flooded after the swelling of River Nzoia due to heavy rains pounding in Mt Elgon. The KRCS Trans Nzoia in conjunction with the local administration commenced sensitisation of the locals on the importance of early evacuation and listening to flood warning alerts. Rooftops of three classes of Rongo Primary School in Rongo were also blown off by strong winds.      
According to research findings, at least 200 pupils resorted to studying under trees after strong winds blew the rooftops of their classes in Got Kachola Primary School in Migori.  On 8 March 
2010.	 five fishermen died after their boats capsized in a rain storm in Lake Victoria. Four fishermen were rescued by the locals.      
In Homa Bay, the KRCS disaster response team (DRT) provided the National Society’s emergency hotline numbers to communities who were in the risk of floods in order to ensure early warning. A KRCS team assessed Kochia Location in Rangwe Division on 1 April 2010. The residents of East Kanyada and Kochia in Homa Bay have been put on a flood alert due to the heavy rains pounding the area.     
In Kasipul Kabondo, a joint team consisting of Government of Kenya (GoK) and KRCS officials carried out a public sensitization drive in the area to train the villagers near Ranyienya Hill on early response strategies in the event of a landslide. The villagers were also advised to be on the lookout for any potential dangers associated by seasonal floods. Some 50 households were evacuated to Uhuru market from Ranyienya hill due to a high alert for a potential landslide triggered by seasonal floods.On 25 April 2010, six households in Kanabi Division, West Rachuonyo District were affected by heavy rainfall that pounded the area and submerged some houses.    
However, some reports suggested that South Rift on 2 March 2010 had three people died in 
Rhoda area in Nakuru and Mogotio after they drowned in raging flood water. Some 90 households were displaced on 25 March 2010 after flash floods hit Mogotio, Kures and  

 Molosirwe  where  40  households,  30  households  and  20  households  were  displaced respectively.     
North Eastern Arabia town in Mandera District was hit by floods that displaced at least 350 households. Mandera town was hit by floods, leading to displacement of 800 households and death of three children. Some 169 latrines collapsed due to flooding thereby posing a health risk to the local inhabitants in the community. The main water system in the town was destroyed after flood waters swept away the main water grid pipes. Seven boreholes and five wells collapsed as a result of the floods. In response, KRCS Mandera Branch dispatched eight plastic toilet slabs and 20 tarpaulins to Arabia Boys Secondary School using a military vehicle. The Ministry of Health also responded by dispatching a nurse with drugs to attend to the affected population, research findings revealed.   

Dobale, Dhano and Gumar villages in Garissa District were hit by floods after heavy rains pounded the areas on 2 April 2010. At least 158 people according to confirmed reports were displaced by flash floods in Dadaab while 65 other others were displaced in Seretho on 20 April 2010 it was learnt.Three houses were marooned and 15 people affected after flooding reported on 23 April 2010. The Moyale to Isiolo Road was also cut off making it impassable for pupils to move to and fro school.   
Elsewhere, research findings reported that some 40 households in Irimani and 35 households in Village Six were affected by flash floods which occurred in Bura Division on 25 April 2010. The flash floods were triggered by water flowing from Ukambani Hills believed to have been caused by seasonal floods.   On 29 April 2010, heavy rains caused an earth dam in Shimbir Fatuma in Mandera to break releasing waters which displaced about 568 households and destroyed about 100 pit latrines. Over 420 livestock were swept away by floods.     
North Rift River Terem in Mt Elgon burst its banks and destroyed the Terem-Emia Bridge thereby rendering the Kapsiro-Emia Road impassable. Residents were since placed on high alert by local authorities, reports suggested.    
Thus, Turkana East was hit by floods after Kerio River in Lokori burst its banks on 7 March 
2010.	 destroying irrigation canals in Morulem and Lokubae irrigation schemes. The floods swept 1,006 goats and three cows and cut off access to the Turkana-Marich Road. At least 600 households  were  displaced  and  over  300  households  were  ordered  to  evacuate  to  safer ground.While in Turkana North, a flash flood hit Kakuma Division of Turkana North following 
an increase in water levels on River Tarach on the 8th March 2010. At least six deaths were 

reported from this incident with 400 households displaced. At least six other people also  reportedly died as a result of the flood waters. Some 372 goats were swept by flood waters in Turkana South District, it was learnt.    
On 1 April 2010, at least 42 acres of land and an irrigation canal were destroyed following flooding in Jonuk Location, Turkana South District. In Pokot, seven households were displaced after their houses were swept away by flood waters after Kerio River broke its banks. At least four deaths were reported in Central Pokot following the flooding. A landslide occurred on 5 March 2010 in Anapngetuny, Tinderet in Nandi South, leading to death of two children and injury of one person who was admitted in hospital. Some two cows and one donkey were also lost in the landslide. A granary with 14 bags of 90kg maize was destroyed by the landslide. The area authorities have put 2,000 people on alert. The areas affected include Elelea, Mololeni and Iten which are located on the lower part of Cherangani hills.  Another landslide occurred in Marakwet East causing 12 deaths and injuring 10 others. Those injured were airlifted to the Moi Teaching and Referral Hospital, two of them critically injured. Some 150 households were ordered to evacuate the landslide area, research revealed.    
Most rivers in Nandi South, Nandi North, Marakwet, Turkana, Moi’s Bridge, West Pokot, East Pokot and Central Province  were flowing at dangerous levels and residents near the rivers were put on high alert. In Nandi South, 15 bridges were swept away by flood waters, three houses were completely destroyed and three others partially destroyed.      
A windstorm hit Keiyo in Tambach and Kamariny divisions on 4 April 2010, affecting at least 150 households in the most affected area of Anin Location. Two persons were injured after rocks in uphill areas dislodged and hit their houses. On 21 April 2010, five households were displaced following floods in Kakichuma Location in Malakisi Division, Bungoma District. The area is currently receiving enhanced rainfall. Two other deaths were reported in Bungoma on 27 April 2010 due to raging flood waters.    
River Sabwani which originates from Mt Elgon and flows through Trans Nzoia District swell at Namajalala Village in Trans Nzoia, putting at risk some 2,000 households. The households will have to be evacuated to identified safer ground if heavy rains continue to be experienced in the area.   At least two women in West Pokot lost their lives on 27 April 2010 after River Konyana broke its banks and caused floods. The Turkwel River also burst its banks sweeping crops in farms near it. The rain storm also destroyed three houses displacing three households.    On the, Coast 17 March 2010, floods hit Waldena area in Galole Division, Hola District. The Hola-Waldana Road was cut off, thereby hindering KRCS Coast Region’s response. Due to 
inaccessibility, food supply in the area had been affected and thus doubled in prices. One kg of 
maize flour is now retailing at Ksh.100 from Ksh.80 while 1kg of sugar is retailing at Ksh.150, up from Ksh.80. The only health centres such as Waldena  and Titila AIC Health Centre had insufficient medical supplies due to lack of medical supplies.Pit  Latrines in the area collapsed and water sources became contaminated. Diarrhoea cases were also reported according to confirmed reports.    
Since 21 March to 3 April 2010, heavy rains in the Tana Delta caused floods leading to heavy losses in Nanigi, Magogo, Waldena and Chwele locations where at least 165 households were displaced and 3,019 households were affected. At least five donkeys, camels and goats were swept by raging water. Some 66 households were displaced in Malindi after River Athi broke its banks. The KRCS distributed non- food items (NFIs) to more than 325 people, who also received food from the Government. At least 97 households were marooned in flood waters.     At least 25 households were displaced by floods in Bura in Holo Village, Hilima Location following rains received in the area for two to three hours. The 70 people affected by seasonal floods were evacuated to safer grounds. KRCS team was sent to assess the area and a relief distribution was out carried thereafter, findings revealed.   
In the Central region of Kenya, a heavy downpour left two houses in Thangira sub-merged in water and claimed one life on 4 April 2010. KRCS volunteers and Kakuzi Limited workers evacuated people at risk to safer grounds. A household was displaced after Mithi Swan Dam overflowed. Some 17 households were evacuated to safer grounds in this area while 67 households are at risk if heavy rains persist. A school girl from Igikiro Primary School drowned in Saba Saba River while trying to cross the river which had increased water levels. A 9-year old girl drowned in a quarry filled with water, it was observed according to research findings.    On 25 April 2010, floods hit Timau area in Laikipia, displacing ten households and affecting 20 others. This occurred as a result of the heavy rains that were pounding the area.    
A heavy downpour in Nyeri District on 5 May 2010 caused a landslide in the area, resulting in the death of at least two people in Mukurwe-ini. An additional 115 households have been evacuated to safer grounds for fear of continued landslides. On 5 May 2010 following heavy downpour in Nyeri, a household was covered by landslide resulting to the death of two peoples in Mukurwe-ini and 150hh moved to safer grounds.   
Imminent Flooding in Tana River and Garissa Districts. On 30 April 2010, KENGEN issued an alert on the likelihood of Masima hydroelectric dam reaching full supply level (FSL) and over spilling. This placed Garissa and Tana River Districts in direct line of flooding.    
When Masinga reaches the peak, the excess water that will be released will lead to floods in 
the two districts. Over 150,000 persons were therefore at risk of displacement in Garissa and 
Tana River.Based on the experience of the floods of 2006, Garissa and Tana River were 25  affected with health, water, sanitation, food, and psychosocial needs arising. On 4 May 2010, Masinga and Kamburu dams with ( fsls) of 1056.5m and had only 0.75m to reaching full supply level, it was established the Kenya Meteorological Department.   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
 
                                                       CHAPTER THREE
   RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 
3.0 Introduction 
This  chapter  mainly  looked  at  research  design  methods,  target  population,  sample  size, sampling procedures, research instruments,  data collection procedures, data analysis and 
ethical considerations. The chapter focuses on qualitative research method. 
3.1 Research design 
Yande in (Fouche and Delport, 2005:132) describes a research design as a plan or blueprint of how you intend to conduct the research. Therefore, the research design which was employed in conducting this research is the descriptive design approach under qualitative research model. The study aimed at collecting information from respondents on the management practices of the headteachers in the seven selected flood prone Primary schools in Mwandi district namely; 
Sankolonga, Mabumbu, Situlu, Aibelilwe, Alibuzwi, Sikuzu and Loanja respectively	. 	It also 
looked at flood coping as well as mitigation measures employed by headteachers practically in 
the selected flood prone primary schools in Mwandi district. 
3.2 Target population 
However, Tromp and Kombo, (2006:76) define population as an entire group of persons or elements that have at least one thing in common, for instance, students at Kenyatta University. Population also refers to the larger group from which the sample is taken. The target population in this study involved the Primary School headteachers in the (7) seven selected flood prone Primary schools in Mwandi district, civic leaders i.e. Councillor, Council Secretary and the Council Chairperson, stakeholders such as the (PTC) and members of the Non-Governmental Organisation (Red Cross).The population was purposively selected from the Seven seasonal flood prone Primary schools in Mwandi district. However, the population suited well with the study due to the fact that the headteachers, PTC members, Councillor, members of the Red Cross and the Council Chairperson including village headmen were the custodians of the vital information needed for the study. 
3.3 Sample size 
However, Kasonde (2013:36) postulates that a sample size is a portion of the population. Furthermore, Bless, (1995) comprehends that sample refers to the number of participants selected from the universe to constitute a desired sample. Therefore, Mwandi district comprises an estimated 32 Primary schools of which (3) three are Secondary schools. The subjects of the 
study were drawn from (7) seven headteachers of the seasonally flooded Primary schools, (7) 
Village Headmen, (3) Civic leaders i.e. Council Secretary, Council Chairperson and the 
 Councillor, (7) seven PTC members from the seven respective Primary schools and (3) three members of the Non- Governmental Organisations (Red Cross) giving a total of 25 sample 
size. All these were drawn from Mwandi district as respondents. 
3.4 Sampling procedures 
According to Tromp and Kombo (2006:76), sampling is the procedure a researcher uses to gather people, places or things to study. While Kasonde, (2013:37) refers to sampling technique 
as the part of the research that indicates how cases are to be selected for the study.	 	It is the 
process a researcher uses to gather people, places or things to study on. In this study, random Sampling procedure or technique was used to select (7) seven members of the PTC and purposive sampling was used on key respondents, namely (7) seven headteachers, (7) seven PTC members, (3) three civic leaders i.e. the Councillor, Council Secretary and Council Chairperson and (3) three members of the Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) operating within Mwandi district (Red Cross). The total number of seven (7) Primary schools in flood prone Primary Schools namely, Sikuzu, Sankolonga, Situlu, Mabumbu, Alibuzwi, Aibelilwe and Loanja were sampled in this study. 
3.5 Research instruments     
The research instruments used in the study in collecting data was semi- structured interview guides and observations. The qualitative approach employed dwelt with the expression of 
qualities.  
3.6 Data collection procedures 
However, Kasonde, (2013:44) states that data collection refers to the gathering of information to answer research questions. While, Kombo and Tromp (2006:99) define data collection as ‘‘gathering specific information aimed at proving or refuting some facts.’’ Semi- structured interview guides and observation were used to obtain data from the respondents. 
3.7 Data analysis 
Thus Kasonde, (2013:46) states that data analysis refers to examining what has been collected in a survey or experiement and making deductions and inferences. It is the manipulation of the collected data for the purpose of drawing conclusions that reflect on the interests, ideas and theories that initiated the study. Therefore, data collected from the Semi-structured interview guides and documents was analysed thematically. 
3.8 Ethical considerations 
The researcher pledged to be ethical when carrying out the research so that he doesn’t offend 
nor cause the subjects pain or indeed distress. As (Tromp and Kombo, 2006:106) postulates, 
the researcher took all reasonable measures to protect subjects physically and psychologically. 

 In carrying out the research, the researcher strove to maintain confidentiality and impartiality at all times during the research process. 
However, conducting a research of this magnitude required a researcher to be down to earth as many  issues came out. Ethical considerations were put into great consideration by ensuring that  prior permission  to  undertake  the  study  at Aibelilwe, Alibuzwi, Sankolonga, Mabumbu,Situlu,Sikuzu  and  Loanja  primary  schools respectively was duly obtained from the District Education Board Secretary of Mwandi district (DEBS).My  proposal  was  first  vetted  and  viewed  by  my  study  supervisor  for appropriecy,efficiency and orderliness. It must be noted that informed consent from the respondents was obtained through oral communication or verbal and equally using consent forms. 
Thus, each participant was formally informed about research	 	questions, research objectives, 
purpose and the methodology of the study. However, sincere confidentiality was guaranteed at all costs to ensure that respondent’s privacy and rights were placed as top priority. This was demonstrated through the use of letters as symbols such as A, B, C,D, so on and so forth and names of the schools instead of the actual names of the headteachers who head these schools. The symbols used  for data tabulation for instance, were indicated as A,B,C,D,E,F and G denoting  Sankolonga,Mabumbu,Aibelilwe,Alibuzwi,Sikuzu,Situlu  and  Loanja  primary schools respectively. On flood mitigation measures as a result of seasonal floods that affected the seven selected primary schools, letters were used to denote the type of mitigation measure 
a particular school carried out in the wake of seasonal floods.The varied flood mitigation measures included offering shelter to learners, use of Oxcarts by children when going to school.

                                                              CHAPTER FOUR

               PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS
4.0 Introduction 
This chapter presents in detail the findings or results of the data collected on the study titled 
‘‘An analysis of Management Practices of the headteachers in seven selected seasonal 
flood prone Primary Schools in Mwandi district’’	. The instrument used in the data collection 
was a semi-structured interview and data analysis was based on the data collected from the participants who included 7 headteachers, 7 Parent  Teacher Committee members (PTC) together  with  other  stakeholders  such  as  Civic  leaders  (the  area  councillor,  Council Chairperson/Secretary, the Red Cross and a Canadian Firm that help vulnerable communities in food supplies often team up together to render help to the seasonally flood prone Primary 
schools. The Red Cross is known for its social cooperate responsibility. The schools were 
purposively selected and it must be noted that Mwandi district has a	 total number of 32 schools 
three of which are secondary while 29 are Primary schools. It is also known that approximately ten (10) Primary schools are prone to seasonal floods including the ones the researcher sampled in the research. The reason for sampling seven was that these were deemed to give the researcher the correct data in that they seasonally experience floods. The findings were 
presented following the research objectives which were:  

i.	 To assess strategies headteachers use to enhance learning in seven selected flood prone 
primary schools in Mwandi district. 
ii. 	To establish flood mitigation measures employed by headteachers in seven selected 
flood prone primary schools in Mwandi district. 
iii. 	To assess flood coping measures employed by headteachers in seven selected flood 
prone primary schools in Mwandi district 
4.1 Strategies headteachers put in place to enhance learning in seven selected seasonal 
flood prone primary schools in Mwandi district. 

Consequently, according to the research, the seven Primary schools that are prone to seasonal floods in Mwandi district depicted a varied degree of headteachers’ analysis of the management practices on these floods. At Sankolonga Primary school, it was revealed that the headteacher mobilised the community through the Parent Teacher Committees (PTC) formerly Parent 
Teacher Association (PTA). Before the onset of seasonal floods, the headteacher organised the Parent Teacher Committee and Village headmen meetings together with the locals to chat the  way forward on how to reduce the negative consequences of seasonal floods. It was observed that the headteacher employed a number of strategies in the management of seasonal floods. The first strategy was to meet members of the Parent Teacher Committees, village headmen 
and the locals through a meeting at school. 

Strategies employed by headteachers during seasonal floods included; mobilising community members by erecting footbridges which tremendously eased learner mobility. Weekly/monthly borders were accommodated at the housing units for veterinary officers. The use of canoes to ferry learners to and fro school was used. Sensitisation of learners and parents on the dangers of seasonal floods and its onset was clear on the headteacher’s management strategies plan as well clearing paths leading to school so that oxcarts which ferried learners during seasonal floods could move well and listening to flood warning signal mounted at Kasaya Bridge. 
At Sikuzu Primary school, the report suggested that the school was partially affected by this 
year’s seasonal floods especially the paths leading to the school were submerged in	 	flood water. 
However, the headteacher employed a number of strategies or practices in the light of seasonal floods such as; closing the school temporarily when seasonal floods intensify. Repairing roofs that were in deplorable state especially before the onset of seasonal floods, constructing passable paths and small bridges leading to the school. Repairing/mending of any damaged roofs and other school infrastructure as a result of seasonal floods as well sensitising the community and learners on the need to be alert following the flood early warning installation at Kasaya Bridge by the Disaster Management and Mitigation Unit (DMMU). 
It was noted that pupils learn during holiday to cover up work lost during seasonal floods. The challenge remain on readmitting those who did not report to school due to seasonal floods once the floods ebbed in that they opted to remain at home in valleys and plains fishing in the Zambezi river. Those who may stray into Namibia’s Shoukmansberg may be arrested and given jail terms though the school has not yet recorded such incidences.However,the Red Cross helped by donating tents and medical supplies not only to Sikuzu Primary school but also to other seasonal flood prone Primary schools in Mwandi district. This was done to avert any outbreaks of waterborne diseases in the affected areas. The headteacher equally practices a strategy where the donated radios by the ministry of General Education are used as epicentres for information dissemination thereby alerting both parents and learners about which weeks or 
months would experience torrential downpours in addition to the Flood Warning alert system installed at Kasaya Bridge. The provision of radios and early Warning on floods in Mwandi  

 and the installation of the Flood Warning alert at Kasaya demonstrate government’s continued commitment on addressing climate change. 

The research findings revealed that Situlu Primary school was one of the affected schools by this  year’s  seasonal  floods  as  it  was  completely  submerged  in  water.  Analysis  of  the headteacher’s management practices indicated that the school is affected by seasonal floods mainly after every one or two years and this year the school was seriously affected by seasonal floods. Due to the headteacher’s creativeness, ministry of education donated radios dubbed ‘learning at Taonga market’ were used or listened to as communication linkages which disseminated information about the onset of floods. 

In line with the theoretical framework of Henri Fayol on the creative problem solving, creativity as a management function, the headteacher’s management role was to install a bell like gong at school which is sounded before the onset of the seasonal floods. This early warning is meant to sensitise the people so that they move to higher grounds and then after the floods people can go back to their settlements.Another strategy employed by the headteacher in the wake of seasonal floods to enhance learning at the school is that of encouraging parents to be escorting learners to school especially pre-school ones. It was noted that floods that occurred at Situlu Primary school did not necessarily prevent learners from going to school despite the surge in flood water levels, leraners managed to wade in water when going to school without protective gear. This was echoed by the headteacher that the status quo posed a health hazard to the leaners as waterborne diseases could affect them. 

It was found that during seasonal floods at Situlu Primary school, a Canadian Firm which is involved in charity work normally helped the locals by donating	 free medicines, cooking oil, soya beans, maize meal, books, pens, pencils and many more items. In a coordinated approach, this Canadian firm worked closely with headteachers in resource mobilisation aimed at helping the pupils as well as the communities in affected areas prone to seasonal floods. This gesture was warmly received by the community who really appreciated the work of this charity organisation. The works of this charity organisation was supplemented by the Council. In the wake of seasonal floods, the council through School -Community Partnership aided the locals by working on fallen bridges, cleaning the roads leading to schools. The council equally engaged the community through mobilisation, repairing classroom blocks that were affected by seasonal floods so that learning in these flood prone primary schools of Mwandi district is enhanced. Headteachers in the seven selected seasonally flood prone primary schools of  Mwandi district were able to plan with interested parties such as the council, village headmen, the Red Cross and others on how best to help learners access education in the wake of seasonal floods.  
In its quest to expand service delivery through social corporate responsibility, the council, before the onset of seasonal floods, donated maize seeds to numerous communities so that they plant these seeds on higher grounds where they were evacuated to during seasonal floods so that cases of hunger due to lack of adequate food is reduced or minimised. The local community also received tomato seeds and green beans which they planted on high ground during seasonal floods.This has so far helped reduce the vulnerability of these communities which get affected due to seasonal floods and this therefore entails that despite the presence of flood water, farming  still  takes  place  and  learners  attend  school,  a  case  in  point  is  Situlu  Primary School.Headteachers’s  management  practices  in  all  these  issues  were  seen  through coordination.  Various  stakeholders  coordinated  well  with  headteachers  in  raising  alerts, resource mobilisation in as far as seasonal floods were concerned. 
4.2 Flood mitigation measures employed by headteachers in seasonal flood prone primary 
schools in Mwandi district. 

Flood mitigation measures employed by headteachers in seven seasonal flood prone primary schools included; Listening to water Birds as a signal of floods onset. This entails that headteachers in the seven selected seasonally flood prone primary schools as a management practice, did disseminate information on the water Birds appearance as early warnings on the onset of floods which the community took it seriously this was evident at Situlu primary school. Offering shelter to weekly/monthly borders and encouraging parents to use oxcarts when ferrying learners to and from school was another headteachers’s management practice in as far as seasonal floods were concerned. These measures had a marked positive influence on the 
lives of the learners in the seven seasonally flood prone primary schools in Mwandi district. 
Same headteachers in the seven selected flood prone primary schools in Mwandi encouraged school going pupils to be using routes not so much affected by seasonal floods so that they did not miss out lessons amid crisis of seasonal floods affecting their areas e.g. at Sikuzu primary school one respondent when asked about which routes did learners use when going to school during seasonal floods.This is what the headteacher had to say in Lozi language; 
‘‘Bana ba Sikolo kwanu Kwa Sikuzu primary school ilikona kwanu Mwandi ha batahanga 
Kwa  Sikolo  baitusisanga  tunzila  totu  sina  mezi  amuunda	,’’Headteacher,  Sikuzu  primary 

 

 school. This simply meant that School going children at Sikuzu primary school normally use paths that are not entirely affected by seasonal floods. 

Water harvesting particularly at Sankolonga primary school was seen as a flood mitigation measure as initiated by the headteacher. The school headteacher devised a flood mitigation measure where at the height of seasonal floods, water is harvested and stored for use during dry season. This is so because the area normally experiences water shortages to an extent of sharing the same scarce water with domestic animals in the dry season. The management role of the headteacher here is seen through the initiation of the idea of purchasing water tanks meant to harvest rain water, he ensures that the purchased water tanks are secured by the school guard who is commanded and monitored for the safety of the said water tanks. Below are two water tanks which the school purchased for water harvesting during seasonal floods to the advantage of the school and consumed amid scarcity of water in the dry season. When the guard was unable to look after the water tanks due to sickness or other reasons, the headteacher organised village headmen who supplied persons to guard the water tanks at the school on a 
rotational basis from one village to the other.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
Fig: 3	 A green Water tank used to harvest water during seasonal floods at Sankolonga primary 
school. 

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
Fig:4 A Blue water tank used to harvest water during seasonal floods at Sankolonga primary 
school.  

The above water tanks were used at Sankolonga primary school during the onset of seasonal floods in the area as initiated by the school’s headteacher. Sankolonga as an area is prone to both draughts and seasonal floods as such in order to survive the onslaught of seasonal floods, the headteacher together with the local functional preparedness committees and through the Parent Teacher Committees (PTC) bought the two water tanks which greatly helped them in terms of storing rain water during peak periods of seasonal floods and later used for domestic purposes such as drinking and watering their plants.The headteacher’s management practice as Henri Fayol stated was organising, commanding, Coordinating and controlling the school’s security personal in ensuring that the two water tanks were secure and saved its purpose it was intended for.  

4.3 Flood coping strategies employed by headteachers in seven selected flood prone primary schools in Mwandi district.  

Flood coping measures which were employed by headteachers in seasonal flood prone primary schools in Mwandi district as the research revealed included; adjustment of school   calendar so that learners can be taught when seasonal floods are no longer there. This role proved to be 
effective as learners were able to compete effectively in lessons. Establishment of linkages 
among local authorities such as the local disaster management units aimed at strengthening 
 flood coping efforts in the wake of seasonal floods. Headteachers initiated the formation of local disaster management units which worked hand in hand with the community in the management efforts of reducing floods such as digging of canals to ensure that the water formed as a result of seasonal floods did not spill over to other areas deemed safe but instead were channelled into the canals. This worked to the advantage of the locals as it ensured that locals did farming and gardening while drawing water from the canals even in the light of seasonal  floods  .Home  based  teaching  during  seasonal  floods  was  also  practiced  as  a management practice employed by the headteachers in countering seasonal floods in the seven selected flood prone primary schools in Mwandi district.  
Headteachers ensured that teachers taught leraners safe swimming methods as enshrined in the revised curriculum (physical education and Sports). 
The role and focus of the headteachers on this score was mainly checking teachers’ preparation books and actual monitoring of these physical Education and Sports swimming lessons whose sole objectives were to equip learners with safe yet survival swimming methods which helped them during seasonal floods. Learners who were affected by seasonal floods were taught at home (school) in specially built shelters.As earlier indicated teaching learners safe swimming methods (part of physical education and sports as a career path way in the revised curriculum) played a huge role. These swimming skills which were taught to learners enabled them to survive the onslaught of seasonal floods. Establishment of functional flood preparedness committees was another flood coping measure used by headteachers in the seven selected flood prone primary schools. It was noted that these functional flood preparedness committees coordinated with school authorities in a quest to cope with seasonal floods that had hit the seven flood prone primary schools in Mwandi district to a point where leraners became 
affected. 	 
At the meeting, several seasonal flood coping measures were discussed and put to use before, during and after the floods. These seasonal flood coping measures employed by the headteacher among others included; buying water tanks which were used to harvest rain water during seasonal floods. Currently, the school boasts of having two huge water tanks which are stationed at the school. The water harvested during seasonal floods is used when need arises especially during the dry season since the school borehole is dysfunctional. The other strategy used by the headteacher in time of seasonal floods is that of emphasising to the parents of the school going children of the need to use ox-cats and donkeys when going to school. This is so 
because during the time of heightened seasonal floods like this year (2018) the entire school 
gets flooded so are the villages within and around the school. This made it difficult for pupils 

 to easily access learning due to high water levels flooding the paths leading to the school. Roads or paths leading to the school were periodically cleared before and after the seasonal floods to pave way for easy movement by learners when going and coming back from school. The headteacher’s management role of encouraging parents to use oxcarts and donkeys to carry their children when going to school was well received by majority parents though same few parents who did not have donkeys and Oxcarts were personally encouraged by the headteachers to personally escort their children to and from school in the wake of seasonal floods that seemed to have disrupted their children’s learning to same extent. 
As a flood coping measure, the headteacher at Sankolonga Primary school indicated that soon another water tank will be purchased with financial assistance from the Parent Teacher Committee and the village headmen which will be erected within the school parameters. The research revealed that during seasonal floods, the headteacher practiced measures that were designed to help learners remain in school weekly, monthly or even termly so that they were not disturbed.  
This entails that learners who are weekly boarders who go to school with all their belongings on  a  weekly,  fortnightly  or  monthly  or  termly  basis.  Thus http//nprcet.og/e%20content/eee/VS.pdf defines flood as a situation when the river over flows its banks and the water spreads in the surrounding areas and submerging them.It usually occurs in rainy season. To this effect, before the onset of seasonal floods at Sankolonga Primary school,  the  headteacher  employed  the  following  management  flood  coping  measures;	 nderstanding the flood history of the area since he has been there for a long period of time	 
and familiarising himself with the geographical features of the area where the school is located. Contacting local flood disaster management units who formed a strong collaborative link between the school authorities and the community.	 Developing a school / community disaster 
management plan and share its ideals with the learners and parents about seasonal floods. Sensitising school pupils on safety measures at household level as part of the school lessons routine was adhered to as well. Identifying safe areas within the school where learners could learn from and address safe evacuation routes for learner was also a management practice which headteachers performed in as far as seasonal floods were concerned. This is particularly important in case of quick as well as slow onset of seasonal floods. Harvesting flood water in huge water tanks during seasonal floods especially at Sankolonga primary school was seen as a good flood coping measure in seasonally flood prone primary schools. 
Headteachers encouraged keeping abreast of facts at all times by school staff and pupils by 
continuously listening to radio for flood information and contacting relevant stakeholders like 

 the Disaster Management and Mitigation Unit (DMMU). Teachers and pupils were encouraged to open drainages and ensure that all the debris allowed easy flow of water. It was also noted that the erecting of the early Warning flood signal at Kasaya bridge had helped the headteachers at Sankolonga,Mabumbu,Sikuzu and Situlu primary schools to arrange equipment and books in safe places as they got early seasonal flood warnings. When the warning is issued, pupils were not pushed to go to school either or stay away but were encouraged to study even when they were not in school while others were encouraged to do weekly boarding at school. The findings also revealed that during seasonal floods, the schools had established a plan to protect school property during seasonal floods by securing all school property in safer offices through the headteachers’ imitative. After the floods, the schools headteachers involved the teachers and pupils in cleaning thoroughly the schools to ensure that no objects were in contact with flood water. Pupils who had dropped out of school were sought after and given the much needed help such as integrating them in the school after being counselled. The headteachers assessed and of course recorded any damage caused to school infrastructure, and sought help and financial or any form of support from the ministry of General Education through the district Education Offices. 
At Sikuzu Primary school, the report suggested that the school was partially affected by this year’s seasonal floods especially the paths leading to the school were submerged in flood water. However, the headteacher employed a number of strategies or practices aimed at coping with seasonal floods such as; closing the school temporarily when seasonal floods  had intensify, repairing roofs that were  in deplorable state especially before the onset of seasonal floods, constructing passable paths and small bridges leading to the school, repairing/mending of any damaged roofs and other school infrastructure, sensitising the community and learners on the need to be alert following the flood early warning installation at Kasaya Bridge by the Disaster Management and Mitigation Unit (DMMU). 
The other management practice of the headteacher designed as a flood coping strategy at Situlu Primary School was to adjust on knock off time so that learners do not arrive late at home from school and usually parents were encouraged to report any unusual development caused by seasonal  floods  to  the  school  headteacher.  The  other  strategy  used  as  a  seasonal  flood mitigation measure was holding of sensitisation meetings with parents. Parents living in lower lands were sensitised to prepare themselves adequately and move to higher grounds before seasonal  floods  occur.  However,  the  other  warning  on  seasonal  floods  upsurge  as  a 
management strategy employed by the headteacher came from water Birds which begin to fly 
over the dry land-an indication that seasonal floods were around the corner. As already  explained, the headteacher at Situlu primary school organised meetings which spelt out the movements of water Birds as a signal of seasonal floods forthcoming.  
Additionally, Government through the Council provided relief food to the school communities and donation of tents to the affected primary schools. A good example of the organisations that partnered with the school in times of seasonal floods was a Canadian faith based organisation (church) under the United Church of Zambia, provided food such as maize meal, beans and cooking oil which was freely given to the affected areas surrounding the school. While Civic Organisations such as the Red Cross supplied tents to the affected areas, medical supplies and sensitisation meetings aimed at educating people on issues pertaining to floods. Meanwhile members of the Parent Teacher Committee (PTC) sensitised the community and learners about the possible incoming seasonal floods. Similarly, seasonal floods were fully used to the advantage of the school as revealed in the study. Rain water was used for gardening during seasonal floods. During seasonal floods, the water table became high hence, more drinking water for people and domesticated animals from the borehole for the school. Seasonal floods at Situlu Primary school brought more water for watering flowers and other household chores. Still at Situlu, it was revealed that in case of severe seasonal floods, the headteacher together with village headmen communicated with government officials who in turn evacuated learners to safer places whereas the Red Cross provided vegetable seeds to the locals for gardening on the higher grounds. It was also noted that learners were given help in form of books, pens and encouraged  to  continue  going  to  school.  Conversely,  at  Mabumbu  Primary  school,  the management practices of the headteacher to enhance learning in the wake of seasonal floods were that of erecting bridges on the paths leading to the school and inviting persons from the Disaster Management and Mitigation Unit (DMMU) so that they could offer help to the affected school and its surroundings. Seasonal floods affected Mabumbu Primary school yearly and so the headteaher equally relied on the early Flood Warning System which was installed at Kasaya Bridge. Below is the Flood Warning System that was installed at Kasaya Bridge by the Disaster Management and Mitigation Unit which alerts people in the surrounding areas about onset of floods. 

 

 

 

 

Fig: 5	 A flood Warning Signal(FWS) at Kasaya Bridge in Mwandi District installed by the 
Disaster Management and Mitigation Unit (2018). 

One of the management practices done by the headteacher at Mabumbu Primary school during seasonal floods was mobilising the community to rehabilitate damaged infrastructure since 
some classes were mud and pole which easily rolled down leaving holes	 and dirty in 	classes or 
teachers’ houses. Widening roads, stamping the shrubs on the paths leading to the school and thorough cleaning of the learners and staff toilets was another strategy employed by the headteacher before and after seasonal floods. Another flood coping strategy employed by the headteacher during seasonal floods was the distribution of medical supplies to the surrounding areas that were obtained from Mwandi UCZ Mission Hospital and stored at the school. This was done in anticipation of any outbreak of diarrheal diseases brought about as a result of 
seasonal floods. 
From the findings, it was noted that schools like Aibelilwe and Alibuzwi Primary, the situation of  seasonal  floods  affected  them  as  well.  The  management  practices  employed  by  the headteachers were similar. Both schools are located in flat swampy flood prone areas. They relied on flood warnings at Kasaya Bridge and it is for this reason that both headteachers disseminated flood warnings to alert people in the surrounding areas about the onset of seasonal floods. Parent Teacher Committee meetings (PTC) were usually held at school before the onset of seasonal floods so that flood preparedness strategies were put in place.Foot bridges made of wood were erected on the swampy path leading to the two schools which enabled both learners 
and the teachers to pass through to and from school. Seasonal floods disrupted learning as most 
learners stayed at home because the paths leading to the two schools, which were recently  upgraded into Primary schools, were seriously flooded. Learning here was temporarily halted as a management practice but those who hailed from nearby villages close to the school braved 
the seasonal floods as they waded in the water. 
As a management strategy, the two headteachers built shelters on the upper land of the school to house those learners who were affected by floods-this strategy enabled learners to access education in the advent of seasonal floods. While those who were completely cut off as result of seasonal floods, learning arrangements during the holiday was organised for them by the headteachers of the two Primary schools. It was also revealed that the headteacher for Aibelilwe Primary school was himself affected by the seasonal floods in the sense that he used to commute from Mwandi peri-urban to the school covering a distance of about (30) thirty kilometres due to inadequate accommodation at the school. It was also revealed that the local authorities i.e. the Council using Constituency Development Funds (CDF) through the Council Secretary built a clinic which dealt with any outbreak of diseases such as malaria, typhoid and 
others mainly brought about by the floods. 
Research findings regarding the Councillor’s role in flood coping situations was that he mobilised people in the affected schools and worked as a team by cutting down poles which were used to put up bridges. Other than that, the council also donated or contributed money towards the rehabilitation and renovation of run down infrastructure in some seasonally flood prone Primary schools in Mwandi district through an initiative known as Mwandi Ward Community Initiative (MWCI). Research findings revealed that at Loanja Primary school. One of the seasonal flood coping measures(SFCM) used was to work together with members of the Parent Teacher committee (PTC) in purching a canoe that was used to ferry learners from the other side of the school across the Loanja stream to the school amid seasonal floods. At Aibelilwe the headteacher together with the community constructed a wooden bridge as a flood 
coping measure to reduce the effects of seasonal floods as indicated below. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
 
Fig: 6 A wooden Footbridge (WFB) constructed at Aibelilwe Primary School to ease learning 
difficulties.  

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
Figure: 7	 A wooden footbridge (WFB) constructed at Aibelilwe Primary School to help 
learners’ access school. 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
 
Fig: 8 A Rural health post at Sankolonga Primary school. 

In  the  light  of  seasonal  floods  onslaught  at  Sankolonga  primary  school,  the  Zambian government through the ministry of health with financial assistance from the donor community built a rural health post at Sankolonga primary school as shown above. As the study established, the main reason of erecting the rural health post was actually to offer or provide health services not only to the pupils who were seemingly affected by seasonal floods but also to the teachers and community within the peripherals of the school.Diarrhoel diseases were easily treated  as treatment  was  readily  available  for  those  who  were  at  risk  of  faecal contamination.Similarly,even those who were not at risk were treated as prevention measures i.e. preventing  further spread of diseases and possible contamination of drinking water and water sources. The headteacher had initiated this by writing letters to the ministry of health through district offices so that a health post could be built. And indeed a community health post was erected at Sankolonga primary school as a result of the headteacher’s planning and coordinating efforts with ministry of health officials whose main objective was to treat pupils who caught water borne diseases as a result of seasonal floods in their quest to access education.    floods impeding mobility among learners as the buying of the canoe has somehow eased hurdles learners go through in times of accessing education in the wake of seasonal floods.The headteacher sensitises learners during school meetings where they are told about dangers of seasonal floods.As management practice devised by the headteacher, learners were told to be moving in groups as they go to school in such a way that in cases of trouble they could easily report  to  the  school  authorities  about  it.Overall,  seasonal  floods  have  been  used  to  the advantage of the school as at the peak of floods, water is harvested and used for drinking during dry season. Flood water is also used by animals. Flood water brings about fresh green pasture for domesticated animals.At   Sankolonga primary school, there was a serious case of seasonal seasonal floods that had left a trail of destruction as shown below.        

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
 
Fig: 9 destruction of a 1 x 3 classroom block at Sankolonga Primary School due to seasonal 
floods (2018).  

The above pictures depict a trail of destruction that had ravaged Sankolonga primary school during the just ended seasonal floods in Mwandi district. As observed, the seasonal floods brought  a hail storm  that ended up removing  some iron sheets  at  the home economics department; nursery and grade one classes were all affected. This happened during the peak of 2017/2018 seasonal floods and as such learning was highly disturbed especially for learners who came from the area that was seriously hit by the seasonal floods. Despite the destruction of the classes at Sankolonga primary school as induced by seasonal floods.The school devised mechanisms where rain water was harvested in huge water tanks which was later used for drinking during dry season when water became scarcity in the area. The destruction above not only affected learning of the pupils but also had a toll on government coffers as it had to look for resources to repair the damaged classroom blocks because the destruction itself was beyond the reach of the local functional preparedness Committees which were overwhelmed by the seasonal floods that had hit the area.    

During  seasonal  floods  at  Sankolonga  Primary  School,  as  earlier  indicated,  the  school 
headteacher harnessed flood water which is later stored and used during dry season since the  

 area experiences water shortages as humans share the water with animals in wells locally known as ‘‘Likelenge or Masima’’ in Lozi.Below are the two water tanks which are used to harvest rain water during seasonal floods-an initiative of the headteacher as a management practice aimed at fully utilising floods to the advantage of the school. 

The distribution of alternatives during seasonal floods in the seven Flood Prone Primary Schools in Mwandi district. 

SYMBOL                              SCHOOL 
•	   A                                    SANKOLONGA 
•	   B                                    MABUMBU	 
•	   C                                    AIBELILWE 
•	   D                                    ALIBUZWI 
•	   E                                    SIKUZU 
•	   F                                    SITULU	 
•	  G                                   LOANJA 
(FMM) FLOOD MITIGATION MASURES 

SCHOOL

	OFFERING
SHELTER  TO
LEARNERS
	USE  OF
OXCARTS
GOING  TO
SCHOOL 	USING
ALTERNATIVE
ROUTES
	LISTENING 
TO  WATER 
BIRDS 
	
A	ü	ü	ü		
B	ü		ü	ü	
C			ü		
D	ü		ü		
E			ü		
F	ü		ü	ü	
G	ü		ü		
TABLE: 1 

 
 \

 
(FCM) FLOOD COPING MEASURES 

 
SCHOOL 	USING WARNING SIGNAL	ADJUSTMENT OF SCHOOL CARENDAR	HOME BASED TEACHING	SAFE SWIMMING METHODS	
A 	ü	ü	ü	ü	
B 	ü	ü	ü		
C 	ü	ü	ü	ü	
D 	ü	ü	ü		
E 	ü	ü			
F 	ü	ü	ü		
G 	ü	ü	ü		
TABLE: 2 

The diagram above shows what happened during seasonal floods in the seven seasonal flood prone primary schools in Mwandi district.(A) denoting Sankolonga Primary school, learners normally use oxcarts and alternative routes when going to school in the height of seasonal floods.As at (B) denoting Mabumbu Primary school, learners when going to school use alternative routes which are less flooded, the school offers shelter to the learners and above all water Birds usually give signals to both learners and parents about the onset of seasonal floods. At  (C)  denoting  Aibelilwe  Primary  School,  it  was  established  that  learners  usually  use alternative routes when going and coming back to school through the wooden foot bridge situated near the main road. 

While at (D) implying Alibuzwi Primary School, learners use alternative routes and the school offers shelter to them especially those who are affected by seasonal floods.(E) denoting Sikuzu primary school, learners often use alternative routes when going and coming back from school. One respondent upon being asked about what learners do during seasonal floods said in Lozi, 

‘	Bana ba Sikolo ba kwanu kwa Sikuzu abayanga kwa Sikolo baitusisanga tunzila totu sina 
ahulu mezi’ ’Meaning ‘‘	Pupils at Sikuzu Primary School when going to school  usually use 
paths that are not affected by seasonal floods, ’ 

At Situlu Primary School which is (F), it was noted that learners use alternative routes, listen to Water Birds and the school normally offers temporary shelter as measures put in place to cope with and mitigate seasonal floods. 

 

Consequently, at Loanja Primary School (G), the management practice put in place as a mitigation measure during seasonal floods were that learners were offered shelter but a good number of them used alternative routes especially using the school Canoe which ferried learners from the other side of Loanja Siasabuzingo to the school. The headteacher at Loanja Primary School when asked about the school being affected by seasonal floods, said this in 
Lozi, ‘‘Bana ba Luna kwanu Kwa Loanja Primary School kanako ya muunda habataha Kwa 
Sikolo, baitusisanga mukolo wa Sikolo.’ ’This means that, ‘Our pupils here at Loanja Primary 
School use a Canoe which the school bought when coming to school’	. Below is a housing unit 
of the weekly borders at Sankolonga primary school. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fig. 10 A housing unit for weekly borders at Sankolonga primary school 

The above figure (9) shows a housing unit at Sankolonga primary school for weekly/ monthly borders captured as they were having their lunch. It must be noted that initially this house was abandoned by officers of the ministry of agriculture and therefore the headteacher transformed it into a house for those learners who hailed from far flung areas and were occasionally affected by seasonal floods.This measure of accommodating the seasonally flood prone primary school pupils at Sankolonga enabled learners who came from far areas such Adonsi, Lutaba and Magumwi not to miss lessons but rather learn with others. When talked to concerning their weekly/monthly living at the housing unit, learners were really excited and commanded the headteacher’s initiative of allowing them to be staying at the house as commendable adding 
that if they were not helped by giving them free accommodation they would have resorted to 
illicit vices such as drinking of the local poisonous beer, early marriage hence collapsing their 
 future. It was equally observed that in fact others had stopped school before the above initiative by the headteacher was launched who are now married and suffering in their villages. 

Thus, these learners vowed that they would not stop school for whatever reasons as they released the importance of school and will not let the headteacher down by stopping school. They remain steadfast and ready to contribute significantly towards the development of the area and the country at large. They even suggested that those who stopped school due to seasonal floods that affected them then and perhaps now married must consider going back to school as they are missing a lot in terms of learning.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 4.1 SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS 

In line with the findings, it was revealed that primary schools in Mwandi district that are prone to sea 

sonal floods are affected differently. At Sankolonga Primary school for instance, the school was completely affected by seasonal floods thereby collapsing some classroom blocks. The school devised a strategy where flood water was harvested for use during dry season because the area normally experiences water crisis to an extent of sharing water with their domesticated animals such as cattle, goats, pigs to mention but a few. 

At Aibelilwe, Alibuzwi and Mabumbu primary schools, it was established that headteachers embarked on sensitising parents and learners on the need to be listening to the early warning flood onset signal mounted at Kasaya Bridge. At Aibelilwe, a wooden footbridge was mounted to easy learner mobility during seasonal floods. While at Loanja primary school, the school in its quest to reduce the impact of seasonal floods purchased a big Canoe which was used in the midst of floods to enable learners to use it to and from school. As for Situlu Primary school, water Birds were listened to as seasonal flood signal and they received medical supplies during seasonal floods from the Canadian Firm that supplies different medicals kits and materials such as drugs, mosquito nets and vegetable seeds among others. 

At  Sikuzu  Primary  school,  different  alternative  routes  were  used  for  learners  to  access education despite the fact that the school is close to the Zambezi River and less affected by seasonal floods. Consequently, at Mabumbu the study established that flood water brings relief to the community in that apart from affecting learning and teaching, flood water was used to water their gardens, drinking water for both people and animals. 

The results of the study revealed a number of strategies were put in place by headteachers in the seven flood prone primary schools such as, mobilisation of community members in erecting bridges to easy learner mobility. Weekly/monthly borders were offered accommodation at the housing units for Veterinary Officers. At Loanja primary school for instance the school purchased a Canoe which was used to ferry learners from the other side of Loanja to the school. Sensitisation, of parents and learners on the dangers of seasonal floods and its onset was another strategy employed by headteachers. 

The following flood mitigation measures were used by headteachers in their management 
practices in response to seasonal floods in the seven primary schools; listening to water Birds  

 as a signal for the onset of seasonal floods, encouraging Parents to embark on the use of Oxcarts when ferrying learners to and fro school. Using alternative routes not much affected by seasonal floods among others so that learners attend school with less difficulties. The flood coping measures however involved adjusting the school calendar, establishment of viable linkages among Local Disaster Management Unit (LDMU), offering home based teaching during seasonal floods. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 CHAPTER FIVE   
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 
5.0 Introduction 
This chapter presents discussion of findings in line with one of the objectives i.e, management strategies employed by headteachers to enhance learning in the seven flood prone primary schools in Mwandi district. This will be supported by literature of other scholars in the same 
vein of management strategies employed by headteachers to enhance learning in the seasonal flood prone primary schools in Mwandi district.  
As highlighted earlier, management strategies used by headteachers in the seven flood prone primary schools in Mwandi district of Sankolonga, Mabumbu, Aibelilwe, Alibuzwi, Sikuzu, Situlu  and  Loanja  included;  Mobilisation  of  the  community  through  Parent  Teacher Committees (PTC) formerly Parent Teacher Association (PTA) to meet and chat the way forward before the onset of the seasonal floods. Ideas were shared on how best to strength these strategies which were employed by the headteachers to enhance learning.  
Learning during seasonal floods moved well and listening to flood warning signal mounted at Kasaya Bridge were seen as management practices. Similarly, according to the research, the seven Primary schools that are prone to seasonal floods in Mwandi district depicted a varied degree of analysis of the headteacher’s management practices on these floods. At Sankolonga Primary school, it was revealed that the headteacher mobilised the community through the Parent Teacher Committees (PTC) formerly Parent Teacher Association (PTA).Before the onset of these seasonal floods, the headteacher organised the Parent Teacher Committee and Village headmen meetings together with the locals to chat the way forward on how to reduce the negative consequences of seasonal floods. It was observed that the headteacher employed a number of strategies in the management of seasonal floods. The first strategy was to meet members of the Parent Teacher Committees, village headmen and the locals through a meeting at school. 
Strategies employed by headteachers during seasonal floods included; mobilising community members by erecting footbridges to ease learner mobility, Weekly/monthly borders were 
accommodated at the housing units for veterinary officers, use of canoes to ferry learners to and fro school, a case of Loanja Primary school, sensitisation of learners and parents on the  dangers of seasonal floods and its onset, clearing paths leading to school so that oxcarts which ferried learners from home to school and vice versa could  move without difficulties. Meanwhile, at Sikuzu Primary school, the study indicated that the school was partially affected by this year’s seasonal floods especially the paths leading to the school were submerged in	 flood water.
 However, the headteacher employed a number of strategies or practices in the light of seasonal floods such as; closing the school temporarily when seasonal floods intensified, repairing roofs that were in deplorable state especially before the onset of seasonal floods, constructing passable paths and small bridges leading to the school, repairing/mending of any damaged roofs and other school infrastructure, sensitising the community and learners on the need to be alert following the flood early warning signal installation at Kasaya Bridge by the Disaster Management and Mitigation Unit (DMMU). 
A close look at the management roles of the headteacher at Sikuzu primary school, it was equally noted that pupils learn during holiday to cover up work lost during seasonal floods. The challenge remained on readmitting those who did not report to school due to seasonal floods  and once the floods ebbed in that area they opted to remain at home in valleys and plains fishing in the Zambezi river. Those who may stray into Namibia’s Shoukmansberg could have be arrested and given jail terms though the school has not yet recorded such incidences. However, the Red Cross  helped by donating tents and medical supplies not only to Sikuzu Primary school but also to other seasonal flood prone Primary schools in Mwandi district after the headteacher made a formal request. This was done to avert any outbreaks of waterborne diseases in the affected areas.  
The headteacher practiced a strategy where the donated radios by the ministry of General Education were used as epicentres for information dissemination thereby alerting both parents and learners about which weeks or months would experience torrential downpours in addition to the Flood Warning alert system installed at Kasaya Bridge. The provision of radios and early Warning on floods in Mwandi and the installation of the Flood Warning alert at Kasaya demonstrated  government’s  continued  commitment  on  addressing  climate  change  and addressing problems faced by the local community especially during the time of seasonal floods that normally ravage the area.  
The research findings suggested that Situlu Primary school was one of the affected schools by this year’s seasonal floods as such it was completely submerged in water. Analysis of the headteacher’s management practices indicated that the school was affected by seasonal floods 
mainly after every one or two years and this year the school was seriously affected by seasonal 
floods. The headteacher installed a bell like gong at school which is sounded before the onset 

 of the seasonal floods. This early warning is meant to sensitise the people so that they move to higher grounds for safety. Akello (2014:15) stated that floods hamper enrolment as parents do not want to endanger the livelihood of the children. So schools prone to seasonal floods have a much higher chance of shutting down due to low enrolment. Akello (2014:15) further postulated  that  during  floods  schools  become  inhabitable  and  roads  impassable,  these discourage parents as well as the learners from registering in such schools. A school feeding programme in Bangladesh as management strategy to enhance learning has resulted in 35 percent overall increase in  enrolment. This helps in the achievement  of the millennium development goal number two now sustainable development goals which is attaining universal basic education (Braun, Swaminathan & Rose Grant, 2004).  
The purpose of monitoring the effectiveness of these headteacher’s management strategies early is to enable remedial measures to be initiated and to provide timely effective relief efforts through disaster and emergency preparedness actions (UNISDR, 2008). Thus early warning strategy  in  seasonal  flood  prone  primary  schools  provided  the  school  community  and stakeholders with timely yet relevant information to enable them make informed decisions for evacuation or relocation. Chisola (2012:15) contented that flooding is a natural phenomenon and in the past people adapted to the hydrological systems in their localities. However, over the years, deforestation, soil degradation, climate change and poor rural settlements have necessited the occurrence of seasonal floods.Chisola (2012:15) further stated that according to( IUCN,2017) the main impact of flood hazards in Zambia were; crop damage/loss leading to food  scarcity  and  hunger,  loss  of  crop/grazing  land,  increase  in  disease  ( malaria,dysentery,cholera  etc.),decline  in  fish  catches,  destruction  of  infrastructure (roads,houses,bridges),loss  of  life  (humans  and  livestock)  and  interference  with  energy production due to change in water flows. 
Carey (2003:122) added that human population worldwide are vulnerable to natural disasters. Certain conditions such as geographical location or people’s income level can affect the degree to which natural disasters impact people’s homes and livelihoods.Gao, et al.(2007:27) stated that although water shortages often grab the headlines, floods continue to be the most serious natural disaster in China. This is despite enormous efforts to construct structural engineering projects for flood control by the Chinese government. 
Douben, (2006:1) comprehended that since ancient times people have settled in flood prone areas due to perceived favourable geographic conditions which facilitate economic growth, 
such as accessibility (transportation) and food production (fertile land). This fact enables many 
societies all over the world to protect vulnerable assets against floods. Yande (2012) asserted  

 that the direct impacts of a flood are closely related to the depth of inundation of flood water. The extent of a flood therefore has a direct relationship for the recovery times of crops, pastures, social and economic dislocation impact to populations. Naturally, floods are the most costly and wide reaching of all natural hazards. They are responsible for up to 50,000 deaths and adversely  affect  some  75  million  people  on  average  worldwide  every  year,  Yande (2012:17).Disease outbreaks are common especially in less developed countries. Malaria and Typhoid outbreaks after floods in tropical countries are also common. It has been indicated that in India and Bangladesh alone 300 million people live in areas that are affected by floods, Nott (2006:57). 
Nott (2006:60) further observed that physical damage to property is one of the major causes for tangible loss in floods. This includes the cost of damage to goods and possessions, loss of income or services in the floods aftermath and clean –up costs. Intangible losses include increased levels of physical, emotional and psychological health problems suffered by flood- affected people. Similarly, Know Risk (2005:74) noted that studies undertaken show that the economic impact of natural disasters shows a marked upward trend over the last several decades. It is believed that the hazards tend to hit communities in developing countries especially the least developed ones hence increasing their vulnerability and setting back their economic and social growth. The study indicated that social impacts include; drastic changes in people’s way of life, distortions of their culture, community, political systems, environment, health and wellbeing of the affected people, their personal property, rights, fears and aspirations are compromised. 
Living with Risk, (2002:47) undertook a study in Scotland whose findings stated that social impacts of floods are associated to the level of wellbeing of individuals, communities and society at large. It includes aspects related to the level of literacy and education, the existence of peace and security, access to basic human rights, systems of good governance, positive traditional values, knowledge structure, social equity, customs and ideological beliefs and overall collective organisational systems. Additionally, in the wake of floods, some groups are more vulnerable than others mainly depending on the scale and magnitude of the floods. Essentially, in relation to the theoretical framework, it was noted that headteachers in the seven selected seasonal flood prone primary schools practiced what a French mining engineer named Henri  Fayol.Henri  Fayol  came  up  with  five  functions  of  management namely,planning,organising,commanding,coordinating  and  controlling.  These  management 
functions were in line with management functions of the headteachers which they exhibited in 
managing seasonal floods. These five management functions focus on the relationship between  

 personnel and its management and they provide points of reference so that problems can be solved in a creative manner. Headteachers in the seven selected seasonal flood prone primary schools were able to plan.Http://www.toolsshero.com/management/five functions stated that planning is looking ahead. 
Akello (2014:15) stated that floods hamper enrolment as parents do not want to endanger the livelihood of the children. So schools prone to seasonal floods have a much higher chance of shutting down due to low enrolment. Akello (2014:15) further postulated that during floods schools become inhabitable and roads impassable, these discourage parents as well as the learners from registering in such schools. A school feeding programme in Bangladesh as management strategy to enhance learning has resulted in  35 percent  overall increase in enrolment. This helps in the achievement of the millennium development goal number two now sustainable development goals which is attaining universal basic education (Braun, Swaminathan & Rose Grant, 2004). Under coordination, it is often said that when all activities are harmonised, the school is poised to function better and that positive influencing of teachers and members of the community by the headteachers such as the need to tell them to look for resource mobilisation in the wake of seasonal floods played a key role. Coordination therefore aims at stimulating motivation and discipline within the group dynamics hence this requires clear communication and good leadership. Only through positive teacher and community members’ behaviour management can the intended objectives be achieved. 
However, this was clearly demonstrated by headteachers in their management practices in the seven selected flood prone primary schools in as far as seasonal floods efforts were concerned. For instance, coordination was seen during building of foot bridges at Aibelilwe and Alibuzwi flood prone primary schools respectively. Men were told to cut down poles which were later used in building bridges while women applied mud on learners’ shelters which had collapsed due to seasonal floods. Division of labour took centre stage hence achieving the set objectives of mitigating seasonal floods in the sampled schools. Controlling as a management practice also played a crucial role as a management strategy in the seven selected flood prone primary schools in Mwandi district. By verifying whether everything went according to plan, the school as an organisation through the headteacher knew exactly whether the activities were carried out in conformity with the plan. Control takes place in a four-step process as revealed by the study. Headteachers in the seven selected seasonal flood prone primary schools were able to establish performance standards based mainly on the school’s organisational objectives. 
Headteachers in the seven selected flood prone primary schools measured the magnitude of 
seasonal floods and gave monthly reports on actual performance and extent of progress and  

 damage caused by seasonal  floods to  relevant  authorities. Often as a management role, headteachers compared results with performance and standards in their management analysis of seasonal floods in flood prone primary schools in Mwandi district.Overall, Sankolonga headteacher according to the study seemed to have been more innovative as a manager in dealing with management practices aimed at retaining learners in school amid seasonal floods in the seven selected flood prone primary schools. For instance, girls and boys who dropped out of school before his coming at the school due to seasonal floods were brought back to school and parents of these children were threatened with court proceedings if they resisted bringing these children back to school.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 4.2 Summary 
This section discusses summary of the discussion of findings. As earlier stated, seasonal floods have potential to disrupt learning at any given school hence the need to have an in-depth understanding of the management practices of the headteachers in seasonal flood prone primary schools in Mwandi district. Management strategies employed by the headteachers in the seven selected  flood  prone  primary  schools  in  Mwandi  district  included  mobilisation  of  the community through Parent Teacher Committees (PTC) formally Parent Teacher Association (PTA).These mobilisations were in form of organising open discussion meetings with a view to establishing viable strategies aimed at reducing the effects of seasonal floods in the seven flood prone primary schools. Community members were mobilised in order to erect footbridges that eased learner mobility during seasonal floods as seen at Aibelilwe and Alibuzwi primary schools. The headteachers especially the Sankolonga primary school headteacher used the abandoned veterinary house to accommodate learners who hailed from far-flung areas such as Adonsi, Lutaba, Mutuwapafa, Mwanamatuku and Magumwi among others. 
The use of canoes to ferry seasonal flood stricken pupils especially at Loanja and Sikuzu primary schools initiated by the headteachers helped to reduce absenteeism and drop outs as many learners attended school without fail. Parents of the children took turns in ferrying learners from their homes to the school. They used a duty rosta which was designed by the headteacher that rotated them until the end of seasonal floods. Similarly, headteachers took it upon themselves to sensitise both the learners and parents on the dangers posed by seasonal floods and its onset. Parents were urged to be conscious when ferrying pupils in the canoes from their homes to school. This was followed by clearing of paths leading to school. At Situlu primary school, the headteacher’s creativeness as a management strategy was seen in a gong like bell that was installed within the parameters of the school that was periodically sounded before the onset of seasonal floods.This early warning was meant to sensitise the people so that they moved to higher grounds for safety. Akello (2014:15) postulated that floods hamper enrolment as parents do not want to endanger the lives of their children by letting them go to school amid seasonal floods. Thus this suggests that schools that are prone to seasonal floods have a much higher chance of shutting down due to low enrolment.  

Akello (2014:15) stated that floods hamper enrolment as parents do not want to endanger the livelihood of the children. Akello (2014:15) further postulated that during floods schools become inhabitable and roads impassable, these discourage parents as well as the learners from registering in such schools. A school feeding programme in Bangladesh as  a management 
 strategy to enhance learning had resulted in 35 percent overall increase in enrolment. This helped in the achievement of the country’s millennium development goal number two now sustainable development goals (SDGs), which is attaining universal basic education (Braun, Swaminathan & Rose Grant, 2004).                  
At Sankolonga Primary school, the research findings revealed that the headteacher mobilised the  community  through  the  Parent  Teacher  Committees  (PTC)  formerly  Parent  Teacher Association (PTA).Before the onset of these seasonal floods, the headteacher organised the Parent Teacher Committee and Village headmen meetings together with the locals to chat the way forward on how to reduce the negative consequences of seasonal floods. It was observed that the headteacher employed a number of strategies in the management of seasonal floods. The first strategy was to meet members of the Parent Teacher Committees, village headmen and the locals through a meeting at school. 
Management strategies employed by headteachers during seasonal floods included; mobilising community members by erecting footbridges to ease learner mobility, Weekly/monthly borders were accommodated at the housing units for veterinary officers, use of canoes to ferry learners to and fro school, a case of Loanja Primary school, sensitisation of learners and parents on the dangers of seasonal floods and its onset, clearing paths leading to school so that oxcarts which ferried learners could move well was done. 

Meanwhile, at Sikuzu Primary school, the study indicated that the school was partially affected 
by this year’s seasonal floods especially the paths leading to the school were submerged in	 
flood water. However, the headteacher employed a number of strategies or practices in the light of seasonal floods such as; closing the school temporarily when seasonal floods intensified, repairing roofs that were in deplorable state especially before the onset of seasonal floods, constructing passable paths and small bridges leading to the school, repairing/mending of any damaged roofs and other school infrastructure, sensitising the community and learners on the need to be alert following the flood early warning signal installation at Kasaya Bridge by the Disaster Management and Mitigation Unit (DMMU). 

A quick glance at the management roles of the headteacher at Sikuzu primary school according to the study revealed that pupils learnt during holiday to cover up work lost during seasonal floods. The challenge remained on readmitting those who did not report to school due to seasonal floods  and once the floods ebbed in that area they opted to remain at home in the valleys  and  plains  fishing  in  the  Zambezi  river.  Those  who  strayed  into  Namibia’s Shoukmansberg could have be arrested and given jail terms though the school had not yet 
recorded such incidences. However, the Red Cross  helped by donating tents and medical supplies not only to Sikuzu Primary school but also to other seasonal flood prone Primary schools in Mwandi district after the headteacher made a formal request. This was done to avoid any possible outbreaks of waterborne diseases in the affected places. The headteacher also practiced a strategy where the donated radios by the ministry of General Education were used as epicentres for information dissemination thereby alerting both parents and learners about which weeks or months would experience heavy downpours in addition to the Flood Warning alert system installed at Kasaya Bridge. The provision of radios and early Warning on floods in  Mwandi  and  the  installation  of  the  Flood  Warning  alert  at  Kasaya  demonstrated government’s continued commitment on addressing climate change and addressing challenges faced by the local community especially during the time of seasonal floods that normally ravage the area.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 CHAPTER SIX 

                           SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 
6.0 Introduction 
This chapter mainly focuses on the summary of the study, findings of the study, conclusions 
and recommendations for further study. 
6.1 Summary 
The aim of the study was to add to the existing literature on viable management practices 
of the headteachers in seasonally flood prone primary schools in Mwandi district. 
The purpose of in the light of seasonal floods in seven Primary schools of Mwandi district, Zambia and the entire world in general. Thus the study was guided by three research objectives and the first sought to assess strategies headteachers use to enhance learning in the seven flood prone Primary schools in Mwandi district. The second objective sought to establish flood mitigation measures employed by headteachers in seven flood prone Primary schools in Mwandi  district.  The third one aimed at  assessing flood coping measures employed by headteachers in the seven flood prone Primary schools in Mwandi district. 

The study was conducted using descriptive design (Qualitative) which is a method of gathering data or information by administration of semi-structured guides and observations analysis. The target population of the study comprised the Area Councillor, Council Secretary, Council Chairperson, Members of the Red Cross, Village headmen, Members of the Parent Teacher Committee (PTC) formally Parent Teacher Association (PTA)and the Headteachers in the affected  areas.  The  sample  size  of  the  study  comprised  of  Seven  (7)  Primary  school headteachers in the seasonally flood prone schools, Seven (7) members of the Parent Teacher Committee (PTC), three (3) Civic leaders i.e. the Area Councillor (AC), Council Secretary (CS), Council Chairperson  (CC)n, three (3) members of the Red Cross(RCM) and five (5) Village headmen(VH) respectively giving a total of twenty-five (25) respondents. 
Purposive sampling as a sampling procedure was used while thematic analysis was used to analyse data. The instruments which were used in data collection were Semi-Structured guides and observations. The results of the study revealed a number of strategies were put in place by headteachers in the seven flood prone primary schools such as, mobilisation of community members in erecting bridges to easy learner mobility. Weekly/monthly borders were offered accommodation at the housing units for Veterinary Officers. At Loanja primary school for instance the school purchased a Canoe which was used to ferry learners from the other side of  

 Loanja to the school. Sensitisation, of parents and learners on the dangers of seasonal floods and its onset was another strategy employed by headteachers. 
The following flood mitigation measures were used by headteachers in their management practices in response to seasonal floods in the seven primary schools; listening to water Birds as a signal for the onset of seasonal floods, encouraging Parents to embark on the use of Oxcarts when ferrying learners to and fro school. Using alternative routes not much affected by seasonal floods among others so that learners attend school with less difficulties. The flood coping measures however involved adjusting the school calendar, establishment of viable linkages among Local Disaster Management Unit (LDMU), offering home based teaching during seasonal floods. Other flood coping measures revealed by the research established that learners were taught safe swimming styles or methods to cope with in the light of seasonal floods in the seven seasonal flood prone primary schools in Mwandi district. The establishment of functional flood preparedness Committees was also put in place hence lessening same hurdles learners endured when going to school during seasonal floods. At most schools sampled that i.e. Sankolonga,Aibelilwe,Alibuzwi,Sikuzu,Mabumbu,Situlu  and  Loanja  it  revealed  that  most instituted functional flood preparedness Committees were working tirelessly hard to reduce seasonal flood consequences. The only challenge noticed was lack of availability of flood coping equipment such as modern boats,boots,raincoats, flood warning signals other than the one established at Kasaya Bridge to mention but a few. Thus the zeal and the eagerness exhibited by members of these local disaster management units such as the functional flood preparedness Committees spoke volumes on how coordinated these people were. 
During  seasonal  floods  in  the  schools  mentioned  above,  functional  Flood  Preparedness Committee members mobilised local resources such as timber, nails, fibre, and poles which they later erected on bridges so as to avoid them from collapsing. Meetings with Headteachers were organised aimed at working together to reduce the negative consequences. The swimming lessons which leraners were taught at these schools revealed that the art of swimming enabled them to swim in water canals leading to the schools. Besides, it also enabled them to do fishing in dams located near their homes. 
Home based teaching of those learners who could have missed lessons due to heavy seasonal floods at their schools during normal learning time were taught at their respective schools during school holidays at a time when schools were on recess. This gesture was well received 
not only by parents of these children but also by pupils themselves as it greatly helped them in catching up with the rest who were learning during the time of seasonal floods. One parent at  

 Mabumbu primary school when asked about the need for their learners who were affected by seasonal floods to be taught during holidays replied in Silozi that; 
‘‘Lufitsa bwitumelo bobutuna hahulu Kwa maluti baluna baba lutanga bana baluna baba banga mwabutata bwakusa yanga Kwa Sikolo bakeng‘isa muunda.Mulimu ndata luna yakwa lihalimu abatonolofaze mwa musebezi wo baeza.’’   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 7.0 CONCLUSION 

Arising from the findings of the study, it was concluded that seasonal floods in flood prone primary schools in Mwandi district affected the seven sampled schools differently. It was established that seasonal floods did not only make learning difficult for learners but it also affected the local communities in which these schools are situated as infrastructure was destroyed, families got displaced subjecting them to disease outbreaks. It was noted that schools affected by seasonal floods used different strategies, flood coping and mitigation measures to survive the onslaught of seasonal floods. At Sankolonga and Mabumbu viable rural health clinics were at hand to offer health services to those affected by flood diseases. However, there is need to establish other rural health posts at Aibelilwe, Alibuzwi, Situlu, Sikuzu and Loanja primary schools as these schools depend on Mwandi Mission District Hospital in order to access health services. 
Noted were the following strategies which headteachers used to enhance learning in the seven selected flood prone primary schools among other; mobilisation of the community members in erecting footbridges aimed at easing learner mobility to and fro school. Use of canoes was key in ensuring that learners did not miss learning especially at Loanja Primary school. It was further revealed that parents took turns in ferrying learners from home to school as they followed a duty rota prepared by the headteacher. The ferrying of learners amid seasonal floods at Loanja primary school was done on a rotational basis from one village to the other. Seasonally flooded schools like Aibelilwe was partially closed.  
Meanwhile flood mitigation measures employed by the headteachers among others included listening to Water Birds which flew in the sky signalling the onset of seasonal floods. This made the locals to get ready for seasonal floods and get prepared as it was the headteacher’s brain child. Offering shelter to weekly or monthly borders in the wake of seasonal floods was another mitigation measure used to reduce the effects of seasonal floods. Among the flood coping measures employed by the headteachers in seven flood prone primary schools in Mwandi district included; adjustment of the school calendar so that learners who got affected could learn during holiday when floods ebbed. Establishment of linkages among the local authorities such as the council, local disaster management units so forth so on ensured that seasonal flood effects were reduced. It was equally observed that home based teaching was encouraged by headteachers as a management practice particularly at Aibelilwe and Alibuzwi primary schools 

in the wake of seasonal floods. It must be stated that the study was an eye opener as it contributed immensely to the knowledge on the management strategies, mitigation  and flood coping measures employed by headteachers in times of seasonal floods in Mwandi district in particular, Zambia as a whole. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
 
7.1 RECOMMENDATIONS 

The study concluded that seasonal floods in the seven selected primary schools in Mwandi district were differently affected and that the strategies, mitigation and flood coping measures employed by the headteachers varied considerably amid noticeable constraints. Arising from the confines of the study, it must be stated that there are areas that need further investigations. For instance, according to research findings, during seasonal floods in primary schools like Loanja, Situlu and Sikuzu accessing medical services by learners remain a major challenge as the only nearby rural health clinic is Mwandi mission hospital which is several kilometres away.  
This therefore entails that further research must be done on how these learners cope with diarrhoeal diseases which break out during seasonal floods bearing in mind the distance of these rural health clinics and the possibility of at least establishing a rural health post near each school. However, this research could be implored further by conducting other research studies especially on other schools in the district that seasonally experience floods which were not reached. This is so because the research findings may not be wholly representative of what goes on in other flood prone schools in Mwandi district. In the same vein, while appreciating the  efforts  done  by  government  through  Disaster  Management  and  Mitigation  Unit  by establishing a flood warning alert at Kasaya Bridge, it is hoped and recommended that such efforts must be scaled up in other seasonally flood prone primary schools within the district because other schools in  far-flung  areas did  not  get  early  flood warning  signals,  hence threatening their lively hood. Similarly, it is also hoped that research could be carried out on how effective is the boat/canoe used  ferry learners to and fro school at Loanja primary school bearing in mind that same of the learners ferried are too young to swim in case the canoe capsizes right in the middle of Loanja stream.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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 APPENDIX A: SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW FOR HEADTEACHERS Introduction 

I’m a student at the University of Zambia carrying out an investigation on the analysis of the management practices of the headteachers  in  seasonally  flood prone primary schools in Mwandi district. This study is purely for academic purpose only. You and many others are requested to give answers to the interview with honest and sincerity. The information you will give will be treated with utmost confidentiality and only used for the purpose of this research. Your total corporation in positive responses towards this research will be greatly appreciated. 

INSTRUCTIONS   

1.) How long have you been at this station? 

2.) A) has your school ever been affected by seasonal floods? 

B.	If yes, how often do seasonal floods affect this school? 

3). what flood coping measures do you employ before, during and seasonal floods at your school? 

4). How workable are the measures that you employ to enhance learning at your school during seasonal floods? 

5). A) When seasonal floods occur, is there any damage caused to the physical features? 

B.	If yes, which features are mostly affected? Ply ground { } Furniture { } infrastructure { } text books { } others 

6.A) When seasonal floods occur, are classrooms flooded? Yes { } no { } 

B.	If yes, how does it affect learning? 

7.	 A) when seasonal floods occur, do you use classrooms or abandon teaching? Yes { } no { } 

B.	If yes, don’t you have an alternative? Yes { } no { } C) If yes, what is the alternative solution? 

8.	 A) Have you ever attended a capacity building training on seasonal floods mitigation? B), if yes, has the training helped you on how to handle seasonal floods (Explain)? 

9.	  How supportive is the community in seasonal floods management at your school? 

10.	 A) Do you get warnings about seasonal floods from the metrological department? Yes { } no { } 

B.	If yes, are the warnings timely... what type of warning do they give? 

11.	 What role do the following play in seasonal flood mitigation? 

A). Government 

B). Non-governmental organisations 

C). Civic Organisations 

D). The PTA 

E.	Village headmen 

12.	 Is there anything you do with the floods to the advantage of the school? If yes, explain. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 APPENDIX B: SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW FOR THE PARENT TEACHER COMMITTEE (PTC) 

Introduction 
I’m a student at the University of Zambia carrying out an investigation on the analysis of the management practices of the headteachers  in  seasonally  flood prone primary schools in Mwandi district. This study is purely for academic purpose only. You and many others are requested to give answers to the interview with honest and sincerity. The information you will give will be treated with utmost confidentiality and only used for the purpose of this research. Your total corporation in positive responses towards this research will be greatly appreciated. 
INSTRUCTIONS 

Indicate your choice by marking an x in the space provided. 

1.	 What is your gender? Male { } Female { } 

2.	 How long have you been in Mwandi district? Less than 4 years { } 4-7 years { } 8-10 years 
	 } 10 and above years { }

3.	 A) schools in your district affected by seasonal floods? Yes { } no { }  B).If yes, how frequent are schools affected by seasonal floods? 

4.	 When was the last time your school got affected by seasonal floods? 

5.	 What measures do you put in place to mitigate these seasonal floods? Erecting temporal shelters { } closing the school { } Building bridges and repairing damaged roads { } other (specify) { } 

6.	 A) Is there anything that you do for learners in schools during seasonal floods? Yes { } no { 
} 

B).If yes, what do you do in case of seasonal floods emergency in the schools? Digging canals so that water gets out of the school { } Evacuating learners and teachers to safer places { } invite persons from the disaster management and mitigation unit { } other (specify) 

7.	 As civic leaders, what role do you play during seasonal floods in schools? Donating money to the affected schools { } repairing damaged infrastructure together with community members 
	 } closing the affected schools { }

 

8.	  A) Do you get warnings about seasonal floods from the metrological department?  Yes { } no { } 

B), if yes, are the warnings timely? Yes { } no { } 

9.	 What type of warnings do they give? 

10.	 How effective are their equipment in giving early signals concerning seasonal floods? Very effective { } not so effective { } Very old { } other (specify) 

11.	 What measures do you put in place to ensure that learning is not disturbed at all during seasonal floods? Building roads leading to the affected schools { } repairing drainages { } roofing schools whose iron sheets were blown out by strong winds { } other ( specify) 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 APPENDIX C: SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW FOR VILLAGE HEADMEN Introduction 
I’m a student at the University of Zambia carrying out an investigation on the analysis of the management practices of the headteachers in  seasonally  flood prone primary schools in Mwandi district. This study is purely for academic purpose only. You and many others are requested to give answers to the interview with honest and sincerity. The information you will give will be treated with utmost confidentiality and only used for the purpose of this research. Your total corporation in positive responses towards this research will be greatly appreciated. 
INSTRUCTIONS 

Indicate your choice by marking an x in the space provided. 

1.	 What is your gender? Male { } Female { } 

2.	 How long have you been in Mwandi district? Less than 4 years { } 4-7 years { } 8-10 years 
	 } 10 and above years { }

3.	 A) schools in your district affected by seasonal floods? Yes { } no { }  B).If yes, how frequent are schools affected by seasonal floods? 

4.	 When was the last time your school got affected by seasonal floods? 

5.	 What measures do you put in place to mitigate these seasonal floods? Erecting temporal shelters { } closing the school { } Building bridges and repairing damaged roads { } other (specify) { } 

6.	 A) Is there anything that you do for learners in schools during seasonal floods? Yes { } no { 
} 

B).If yes, what do you do in case of seasonal floods emergency in the schools? Digging canals so that water gets out of the school { } Evacuating learners and teachers to safer places { } invite persons from the disaster management and mitigation unit { } other (specify) 

7.	 As civic leaders, what role do you play during seasonal floods in schools? Donating money to the affected schools { } repairing damaged infrastructure together with community members 
	 } closing the affected schools { }

 

8.	  A) Do you get warnings about seasonal floods from the metrological department?  Yes { } no { } 

B), if yes, are the warnings timely? Yes { } no { } 

9.	 What type of warnings do they give? 

10.	 How effective are their equipment in giving early signals concerning seasonal floods? Very effective { } not so effective { } Very old { } other (specify). 

11.	 What measures do you put in place to ensure that learning is not disturbed at all during seasonal floods? Building roads leading to the affected schools { } repairing drainages { } roofing schools whose iron sheets were blown out by strong winds { } other (specify). 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 APPENDIX D: SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW FOR THE REDCROSS Introduction 

I’m a student at the University of Zambia carrying out an investigation on the analysis of the management practices of the headteachers in  seasonally  flood prone primary schools in Mwandi district. This study is purely for academic purpose only. You and many others are requested to give answers to the interview with honest and sincerity. The information you will give will be treated with utmost confidentiality and only used for the purpose of this research. Your total corporation in positive responses towards this research will be greatly appreciated. 

INSTRUCTIONS 

Indicate your choice by marking an x in the space provided. 

1.	 What is your gender? Male { } Female { } 

2.	 How long have you been in Mwandi district? Less than 4 years { } 4-7 years { } 8-10 years 
	 } 10 and above years { }

3.	 A) schools in your district affected by seasonal floods? Yes { } no { }  B).If yes, how frequent are schools affected by seasonal floods? 

4.	 When was the last time your school got affected by seasonal floods? 

5.	 What measures do you put in place to mitigate these seasonal floods? Erecting temporal shelters { } closing the school { } Building bridges and repairing damaged roads { } other (specify) { } 

6.	 A) Is there anything that you do for learners in schools during seasonal floods? Yes { } no { 
} 

B).If yes, what do you do in case of seasonal floods emergency in the schools? Digging canals so that water gets out of the school { } Evacuating learners and teachers to safer places { } invite persons from the disaster management and mitigation unit { } other ( specify) 

7.	 As civic leaders, what role do you play during seasonal floods in schools? Donating money to the affected schools { } repairing damaged infrastructure together with community members 
	 } closing the affected schools { }

 

8.	  A) Do you get warnings about seasonal floods from the metrological department?  Yes { } no { } 

B), If yes, are the warnings timely? Yes { } no { } 

9.	 What type of warnings do they give? 

10.	 How effective are their equipment in giving early signals concerning seasonal floods? Very effective { } not so effective { } Very old { } other (specify). 

11.	 What measures do you put in place to ensure that learning is not disturbed at all during seasonal floods? Building roads leading to the affected schools { } repairing drainages { } roofing schools whose iron sheets were blown out by strong winds { } other (specify). 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 APPENDIX E: SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW FOR THE AREA COUCILLOR Introduction 

I’m a student at the University of Zambia carrying out an investigation on the analysis of the management practices of the headteachers in  seasonally  flood prone primary schools in Mwandi district. This study is purely for academic purpose only. You and many others are requested to give answers to the interview with honest and sincerity. The information you will give will be treated with utmost confidentiality and only used for the purpose of this research. Your total corporation in positive responses towards this research will be greatly appreciated. 

INSTRUCTIONS 

Indicate your choice by marking an x in the space provided. 

1.	 What is your gender? Male { } Female { } 

2.	 How long have you been in Mwandi district? Less than 4 years { } 4-7 years { } 8-10 years 
	 } 10 and above years { }

3.	 A) schools in your district affected by seasonal floods? Yes { } no { }  B).If yes, how frequent are schools affected by seasonal floods? 

4.	 When was the last time your school got affected by seasonal floods? 

5.	 What measures do you put in place to mitigate these seasonal floods? Erecting temporal shelters { } closing the school { } Building bridges and repairing damaged roads { } other (specify) { } 

6.	 A) Is there anything that you do for learners in schools during seasonal floods? Yes { } no { 
} 

B).If yes, what do you do in case of seasonal floods emergency in the schools? Digging canals so that water gets out of the school { } Evacuating learners and teachers to safer places { } invite persons from the disaster management and mitigation unit { } other (specify) 

7.	 As civic leaders, what role do you play during seasonal floods in schools? Donating money to the affected schools { } repairing damaged infrastructure together with community members 
	 } closing the affected schools { }

 
8.	  A) Do you get warnings about seasonal floods from the metrological department?  Yes { } no { } 

B), If yes, are the warnings timely? Yes { } no { } 

9.	 What type of warnings do they give? 

10.	 How effective are their equipment in giving early signals concerning seasonal floods? Very effective { } not so effective { } Very old { } other (specify). 

11.	 What measures do you put in place to ensure that learning is not disturbed at all during seasonal floods? Building roads leading to the affected schools { } repairing drainages { } roofing schools whose iron sheets were blown out by strong winds { } other (specify). 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 APPENDIX  F:  SEMI-STRUCTURED  INTERVIEW  FOR  THE  COUNCIL CHAIRPERSON 

Introduction 

I’m a student at the University of Zambia carrying out an investigation on the analysis of the management practices of the headteachers in  seasonally  flood prone primary schools in Mwandi district. This study is purely for academic purpose only. You and many others are requested to give answers to the interview with honest and sincerity. The information you will give will be treated with utmost confidentiality and only used for the purpose of this research. Your total corporation in positive responses towards this research will be greatly appreciated. 

INSTRUCTIONS 

Indicate your choice by marking an x in the space provided. 

1.	 What is your gender? Male { } Female { } 

2.	 How long have you been in Mwandi district? Less than 4 years { } 4-7 years { } 8-10 years 
	 } 10 and above years { }

3.A) schools in your district affected by seasonal floods? Yes { } no { }  B).If yes, how frequent are schools affected by seasonal floods? 

4.	 When was the last time your school got affected by seasonal floods? 

5.	 What measures do you put in place to mitigate these seasonal floods? Erecting temporal shelters { } closing the school { } Building bridges and repairing damaged roads { } other (specify) { } 

6.	 A) Is there anything that you do for learners in schools during seasonal floods? Yes { } no { 
} 

B).If yes, what do you do in case of seasonal floods emergency in the schools? Digging canals so that water gets out of the school { } Evacuating learners and teachers to safer places { } invite persons from the disaster management and mitigation unit { } other (specify). 

 

 

7.	  As civic leaders, what role do you play during seasonal floods in schools? Donating money to the affected schools { } repairing damaged infrastructure together with community members 
	 } closing the affected schools { }

8.	 A) Do you get warnings about seasonal floods from the metrological department?  Yes { } no { } 

B),If yes, are the warnings timely? Yes { } no { } 

9.	 What type of warnings do they give? 

10.	 How effective are their equipment in giving early signals concerning seasonal floods? Very effective { } not so effective { } Very old { } other (specify) 

11.	 What measures do you put in place to ensure that learning is not disturbed at all during seasonal floods? Building roads leading to the affected schools { } repairing drainages { } roofing schools whose iron sheets were blown out by strong winds { } other (specify). 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
APPENDIX  G:  SEMI-STRUCTURED  INTERVIEW  FOR  THE  COUNCIL SECRETARY 

Introduction 

I’m a student at the University of Zambia carrying out an investigation on the analysis of the management practices of the headteachers in  seasonally  flood prone primary schools in Mwandi district. This study is purely for academic purpose only. You and many others are requested to give answers to the interview with honest and sincerity. The information you will give will be treated with utmost confidentiality and only used for the purpose of this research. Your total corporation in positive responses towards this research will be greatly appreciated. 

INSTRUCTIONS 

Indicate your choice by marking an x in the space provided. 

1.	 What is your gender? Male { } Female { } 

2.	 How long have you been in Mwandi district? Less than 4 years { } 4-7 years { } 8-10 years 
	 } 10 and above years { }

3.A) schools in your district affected by seasonal floods? Yes { } no { }  B).If yes, how frequent are schools affected by seasonal floods? 

4.	 When was the last time your school got affected by seasonal floods? 

5.	 What measures do you put in place to mitigate these seasonal floods? Erecting temporal shelters { } closing the school { } Building bridges and repairing damaged roads { } other (specify) { } 

6.	 A) Is there anything that you do for learners in schools during seasonal floods? Yes { } no { 
} 

B).If yes, what do you do in case of seasonal floods emergency in the schools? Digging canals so that water gets out of the school { } Evacuating learners and teachers to safer places { } invite persons from the disaster management and mitigation unit { } other (specify). 

 

 

7.	  As civic leaders, what role do you play during seasonal floods in schools? Donating money to the affected schools { } repairing damaged infrastructure together with community members 
	 } closing the affected schools { }

8.	 A) Do you get warnings about seasonal floods from the metrological department?  Yes { } no { } 

B), If yes, are the warnings timely? Yes { } no { } 

9.	 What type of warnings do they give? 

10.	 How effective are their equipment in giving early signals concerning seasonal floods? Very effective { } not so effective { } Very old { } other (specify). 

11.	 What measures do you put in place to ensure that learning is not disturbed at all during seasonal floods? Building roads leading to the affected schools { } repairing drainages { } roofing schools whose iron sheets were blown out by strong winds { } other (specify).