Veterinary Medicine

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    Risk factors associated with the outbreak of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia in Chisamba district, Zambia.
    (The University of Zambia, 2024) Kamasongo, Oscar Kamaya
    Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) is a highly contagious and severe infectious disease of cattle that is listed as a notifiable disease by the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH). CBPP is caused by Mycoplasma mycoides subspecies mycoides small colony, which can lead to severe cattle losses. In 2022, two districts in Zambia, Chibombo and Chisamba, recorded outbreaks of CBPP. To halt the spread of CBPP to nearby districts, a mass slaughter exercise was conducted in which livestock farmers lost their cattle. It was thus the objective of this study to determine the risk factors that facilitated the occurrence of the disease in the district of Chisamba and assess the knowledge of cattle farmers on CBPP. Chisamba district is known for having many farms and for its agricultural activities hence the impact of a CBPP outbreak on the economy cannot be ignored. Data was collected using a pre-tested semi-structured questionnaire. The questionnaire comprised a total of 42 questions, divided into three sections namely, demographic information of the participants, cattle management practices on the farms, and knowledge of CBPP of the participants. The questionnaire was administered to 55 participants who comprised both commercial (10) and small-scale (45) livestock farmers in Chisamba district. Only adults (18 years and above) who owned cattle or farm workers actively involved in cattle management, and had agreed to participate by way of a signed consent, were enrolled in the study. A snowball sampling technique was employed to select the individual participants and purposive sampling was used to select the farms. Of the 55 farms from which the participants were drawn, only 2 farms had recorded positive cases of CBPP. Eight risk factors were assessed and these were the age of cattle, sex of cattle most affected, herd size, mode of feeding, source of water, cattle trading, access to veterinary services, and housing facility of cattle. In the current study, only trading of cattle (p-value = 0.039: RR = 1.238, 95% CI), was strongly associated with the occurrence of CBPP, suggesting that trade and movement of infected cattle which were mixed with the old healthy herds could have precipitated the CBPP outbreak in the district. Moreover, the low numbers (13.8%) of participants with some knowledge of CBPP and the factors associated with it were worrying. Hence the study recommends that the government, relevant bodies, as well as farmers must strictly check the health status of animals before they can engage in cattle trading. Furthermore, there is a need to regularly engage livestock farmers and educate them about diseases of economic importance such as CBPP. The study will help raise awareness on better cattle trading practices and knowledge of farmers.
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    Antibiotic susceptibility pattern of selected foodborne associated bacteria from cockroaches.
    (The University of Zambia, 2024) Kapansa, Lawrence
    Cockroaches appear to be suitable mechanical transmitters for a wide range of food borne pathogenic microorganisms due to their habit of feeding on excreta or garbage and occurrence in places where food is stored or handled. Therefore, they can play a significant role in the dissemination of microorganisms between the environment. The objective of the study was to determine the antibiotic susceptibility pattern of selected bacterial food-borne pathogens isolated from cockroach species. A total of 278 cockroaches were collected from 50 rooms at University of Zambia and 40 houses in Kalingalinga between November 2023 and January 2024. Two species of cockroaches namely Periplaneta americana and Blattella germanica were identified using identification keys. The distribution of these species was found to be statistically insignificant between the two study sites, with B. germanica being more prevalent, accounting for 66.7% of the cockroaches at UNZA and 58.2% at Kalingalinga. Wash homogenates of the external and gut surfaces were used for culturing on selective and differential media. The isolated bacteria were identified using biochemical tests. Bacterial pathogens were isolated from both the external and gut surfaces of the cockroaches, with 39 foodborne-associated bacteria identified. These included Escherichia coli (12 isolates), Salmonella species (7 isolates), and Staphylococcus aureus (7 isolates) from P. americana, and from B. germanica, Escherichia coli (6 isolates), Salmonella species (3 isolates), and Staphylococcus aureus (4 isolates). Of the 39 bacterial isolates, 79% were from the cockroach gut, while 21% were from the external surface, showing that the gut is a significant reservoir for pathogenic bacteria. The distribution of these pathogens was not statistically significant across the study sites or cockroach body parts. Antibiotic susceptibility testing of the bacterial isolates revealed varying degrees of resistance. S. aureus showed high resistance to Penicillin G, while Salmonella and E. coli exhibited notable resistance to Ciprofloxacin and Cefotaxime, with 66.7% of all bacterial isolates being resistant to at least one class of antibiotics. Furthermore, 35.9% (N=39) of the isolates were multidrugresistant (MDR), with the MDR rate being 39% (n=18) in E. coli, 40% (n=10) in Salmonella and 27% (n=11) in S. aureus. Phenotypic testing detected Extended Spectrum Beta-Lactamase (ESBL)-producing bacteria among the isolates, with 8 E. coli and 3 Salmonella identified as potential ESBL producers. After screening on Cefotaxime/MacConkey agar, 3 E. coli and 2 Salmonella were confirmed as ESBL producers. PCR analysis revealed the presence of blaCTX-M and blaTEM genes in these ESBLproducing isolates, with blaCTX-M detected in 2 E. coli isolates and blaTEM detected in all 5 ESBLproducing isolates. The findings from this study highlight the potential role of cockroaches as vectors for foodborne pathogens and multidrug-resistant bacteria in residential and institutional settings. Given the high percentage load of pathogenic bacteria, particularly in the gut of cockroaches, and the observed antimicrobial resistance, the results underscore the need for effective pest control strategies and prudent use of antibiotics to mitigate the spread of resistant bacteria. Moreover, the presence of ESBL-producing E. coli and Salmonella emphasizes the importance of ongoing surveillance of antimicrobial resistance in both healthcare and environmental contexts to protect public health.
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    Evaluation of smallholder dairy farmers’ knowledge, aattitudes, practices (KAP) and factors contributing to hygienic production of raw milk in Malawi’s Blantyre agriculture development division.
    (The University of Zambia, 2025) Chilambula, Enock
    Dairy products provide nutrition to households, but they could also serve as source of milk-borne diseases when produced under poor hygienic conditions. This cross-sectional study was conducted from August to September 2023 to evaluate smallholder dairy farmers’ knowledge, attitudes, practices (KAP), and factors affecting the hygienic milk production in Malawi’s Blantyre Agriculture Development Division (BLADD). A questionnaire was administered to 410 participants in selected districts of Blantyre, Chiradzulu, Mulanje and Thyolo in Malawi to assess knowledge, attitudes and practices. This study collected 90 raw milk which was analysed at Malawi University of Business and Applied Sciences to investigate for compliance to Malawi or European Union Standards. Subsequently, a total of 90 small scale farms were visited to observe hygienic milk production. The version 26 Statistical Package for the Social Sciences was used to analyse data Chi square analysis for associated factors of hygienic milk production. A binary logistic regression to determine hygienic milk production predictors and p value of less than 0.05 was considered significant. Majority of 60% participants were females. Most of 86.6% and 66% the respondents had formal education and pre-training respectively. The overall KAP knowledge was only 54%, most smallholder dairy farmers reported positive attitudes at 88% and excellent practices at 63%. Most smallholder dairy farmer in Blantyre Agriculture Development Division (BLADD) had passed aggregate 80% while moderate were successful on composite score of 67%. Few farmers (27%; n=410) had low aggregate score of knowledge, attitude and practice were six (OR=5.910, 95% CI: 1.997-17.489) times less likely to produce hygienic milk. Inadequate pre-training and a low aggregate score were identified as key factors behind the failure of smallholder farmers in BLADD to meet Malawian and European Union (EU) standards, raising concerns about potential milk-borne diseases. Out of 90 raw milk samples analysed for presence of E. coli, 12% and 56% were within acceptable limits of Malawi and European Union standards, respectively. This could be attributed to unsanitary animal quarters, as half of smallholder dairy farmers in Malawi’s Blantyre Agriculture Development Division do not remove waste daily and some workers milk cows without supervision. In conclusion, smallholder dairy farmers had positive attitudes and good milk hygiene practices however, their knowledge was inadequate. Surprisingly, farmers’ milk was contaminated, it was difficult to meet legal limits of Malawi and European Union standards for E. coli. To address this, the study proposed that initial structured training and ongoing annual refresher sessions for dairy farmers coupled with commitment to daily animal barn cleaning to prevent milk borne diseases.
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    “Projecting the effects of non-pharmaceutical interventions and vaccination on COVID-19 control in Lusaka using a mathematical model”.
    (The University of Zambia, 2024) Nsofwa, Mwamba
    The COVID-19 epidemic in Zambia has had significant social and economic impact on the health sector and wellbeing of the population. Hence it is vital to investigate the effect of various Interventions that were implemented to control the spread of the pandemic. Non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) were introduced to help contain the spread of COVID- 19 pandemic in the absence of pharmaceutical interventions. Since then, COVID-19 vaccines have been developed and are readily available globally. Projecting the combined impact of vaccine uptake and NPIs in the control of the COVID 19 pandemic is crucial to support evidence-based policy making. The Vensim Personal Learning Edition (PLE) simulation software was used to create a modified Susceptible-Exposed-Infectious-Recovered (SEIR) mathematical model to show the simultaneous effects of vaccination combined with NPIs such as social distance, hand hygiene and cough etiquette which we termed as behaviour change, and also vaccination with face masking only against COVID-19 in Lusaka. Behaviour change and face masking were simulated at different percentages compliance together with varying vaccine uptake levels of low, moderate and high. Twelve different scenarios for groups of people who practice behaviour change or combined (NPIs) with vaccination and twelve scenarios for face masking with vaccination were modelled. Results from the simulation showed a reduction in the number of both cumulative cases and deaths from the interventions put in place as compared to scenarios without intervention. Furthermore, the basic reproduction number (R0) which was initially set at 2.64 in the model and was reduced to 2.37 in the scenario set at 10% behaviour change with low vaccination rate and 2.34 in the scenario set at 10% behaviour change with high vaccination rate as well as 0.61 in the scenario set at 80% behaviour change with low vaccination rate and 0.55 in the scenario set at 80% behaviour change with high vaccination rate. In the masking with vaccination scenarios, reproduction number was reduced to 2.45 in the scenario set at 10% masking with low vaccination rate and 2.29 in the scenario set at 10% masking with high vaccination rate as well as 1.25 in the scenario set at 80% masking with low vaccination rate and 1.24 in the scenario set at 80% masking with high vaccination rate. These findings highlight the importance of continued adherence to NPIs even when the population is being vaccinated, particularly under scenarios of lower vaccination rates which are influenced by vaccine efficacy, distribution and community hesitancy.
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    Food safety knowledge, attitude and practices of small-scale broiler chicken farmers in Lusaka province-a cross-sectional study.
    (The University of Zambia, 2024) Mvula, M’sampa
    The poultry industry in Zambia is a critical sector for the national economy. Over the last two decades, the country has experienced rapid growth in poultry production with a large share being contributed by small-scale urban producers. Among the major concerns that are related to this development are health issues threatening the consumers of the broiler meat, issues such as Campylobacter spp, Salmonella spp and E. coli spp related food poisoning as a result of poor hygiene during the processing of broiler meat. This study’s objectives were to assess small-scale broiler farmers’ level of food safety knowledge, determine their attitude towards food safety and establish the practices concerning good hygiene during the processing and handling of the broiler carcasses. The study was a cross-sectional study comprising of 146 small-scale broiler farmers in Lusaka Province. Data concerning their food safety knowledge, attitude and practices (KAP) as well as their demographic characteristics such as age, gender, level of education and length of doing business in broiler production were collected using a semi-structured questionnaire. Respondents who scored ≥60% of the maximum possible score were categorized as having good knowledge, a positive attitude and good practices. The respondents generally had good food safety knowledge (66.4%), positive attitudes toward food safety (97.9%), and good practices (78.8%) with mean scores of 23 out of 36 (±9), 11 out of 12 (±1.2),16 out of 22 (±3) respectively. Further, the Pearson chi square test of association revealed that the knowledge levels were significantly associated with age, education, gender and length of doing business (p<0.05). Food safety practices were significantly associated with gender and length of doing business(p<0.05).Following a binary logistics regression, predictors of good knowledge were: respondents between 36-45 years old (OR=7.34,95%CI:1.40- 38.42),respondents above 40 years old(OR=8.44,95% CI:1.39-51.20),Secondary school education (OR=0.10,95%CI:0.03-0.33), Tertiary education (OR=0.16,95% CI: 0.06-0.417),5- 10 years in broiler chicken production business (OR=0.32,95% CI:0.10-0.96) and being female(OR=0.26,95% CI:0.10-0.65).The predictors of good practices were: Secondary school education (OR=0.21,95% CI:0.07-0.66) Study findings suggest the need for food safety education on safe poultry meat handling and hygiene among small-scale broiler farmers. This will ensure that the poultry meat produced from these farms is safe for consumption.