Mines

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Analysis of electronic waste management practices in the mining industry of Zambia (case study of first quantum minerals limited and dangote cement Zambia limited).
(The University of Zambia, 2022) Kamutumwa, Namatama
The mining industry in Zambia is one of the sectors that contributes greatly to the country’s economy by contributing greatly to the Gross Domestic Product and according to the latest EITI report, the extractive sector accounts directly for 9.9% of GDP and 78.4% of exports in Zambia. With this at play, there has been a demand to high productivity and this has led to the use of electric equipment such as Computers, printers, electrical lightings and mostly Electronic, remote controlled and computerised heavy equipment machinery during production. Although the use of electronic appliances has great benefit to development of the economy, there has been a great impact on the amount of e-waste being generated as the components in e-waste are toxic and hazardous. This waste has been identified as a problem not just in Zambia but worldwide making the development of an e-waste management system cardinal in any industry. This study employed qualitative methods, purposive sampling techniques and two mining companies First Quantum Minerals Limited (FQML) Kansanshi site and Dangote Cement Zambia Limited (DCZL) were selected as case studies. A regulatory agency Zambia Environmental Management Agency (ZEMA) was also selected. The research methods were used to analyse the management practices of e-waste in the mining industry of Zambia and it was found that the two mining companies were struggling to manage the e-waste generated as there are no e-waste policies or legislation to give guidance on e-waste management practices and they relied on acts such as the Environmental Management Act of 2011 that address hazardous waste management. This study showed that the regulatory agency ZEMA had challenges in conducting sensitization and awareness campaigns and developing of e-waste technical guidelines due to lack of funding. The study concluded that the implementation of e-waste management practices can only be improved through the development of sustainable environmental strategies such as formulation, implementation and enforcement of e-waste management policies and development of e-waste technical guidelines that stress more on handling, storage, collection, sorting, dismantling, transportation in the country. Allocation of funds is needed to develop e-waste technical guidelines and support e-waste management programs such as sensitization and awareness, which have to be implemented, monitored and evaluated within an agreed time frame in these institutions in order to protect the environment from the pollution that comes with this type of waste. Therefore, the study recommended that ZEMA drives the development and implementation of e-waste management policies and legislation with policy makers and develop environmental strategies involving recycling of e-waste and for the mining companies, development of a comprehensive organizational e-waste inventory, development of a sustainable e-waste management system and introduction of EPR (Extended Producer Responsibility) and green procurement.
An analysis of the performance of the manufacturing Industry in Zambia: The engineering manufacturing sub-sector
(2011-07-14) Munakaampe, M. Grain
The Zambian economy in 1964 was among the strongest in Sub-Saharan Africa. Through the years, however, it declined to among the weakest. The manufacturing sector's contribution to GDP declined from a peak of 30 per cent in 1992 to 24 per cent in 1996. The engineering manufacture sub-sector accounted for only 22 per cent of this contribution in 1971, peaking at 26 per cent (1975), but declining to 13 per cent (1996).This study analysed the performance of manufacturing particularly the engineering sub-sector in Zambia from 1964 to 1997. It identified the effects on performance of technology choices,product range, technical and management skills, and operating environment. It also examined the effects of government's economic policies on industry. Trends were compared at macro(sectoral) and micro (firm) levels by in-depth studies of some firms.Data collected was analysed using the Management Systems Analysis Model (MSAM), Statistical Methods (SM) and Total Factor Productivity Growth (TFPG) to determine sources of growth and/or decline in the performance of the manufacturing and engineering industries. Technologies employed by firms were analysed against the background of facility and job design, process variability, total quality management, level of labour skills, plant recapitalisation and modernisation, environmental and energy considerations. The manufacturing technologies in use were further compared with more advanced ones. It was found that TFPG contributed to the growth and decline of both manufacturing and engineering sectors. In both manufacturing sector and engineering sub-sector, there was rapid growth in output from 1964, but this growth declined after 1992 and 1982, respectively. Before 1991, government policies were commandist and did not encourage free enterprise and competition. Prior to 1991, it was also found that the energy crisis (1973), the Rhodesian border closure (1965), the freedom struggle in neighbouring countries and cost of spare parts affected the performance of the economy. However, after 1991, despite the liberalisation of the economy, there were no financial incentives for the struggling and emergent industries.Therefore, industry failed to re-invest in new and more efficient technologies, production methods and total quality management to meet the challenges of an open market economic policy in Zambia. Research and development were neglected both before and after 1991. From this study, it is recommended that both the government and industry need to play their respective parts, with government as a facilitator and formulator of policies conducive for growth of industry and industry itself taking initiatives that facilitate growth. Industrial initiatives must include research and development, investment into newer and more efficient technologies, improvement of existing facilities for better productivity and use of cheaper but sound raw materials. Organisational frameworks and information acquisition, generation, storage and dissemination must be improved. The report, further, concludes that unless this partnership between government and industry is recognised and exploited, all efforts by either the government or industry to resuscitate the economy will be futile.
Application of high precision mining as a way of optimizing loading and hauling operations at Kansanshi mining Plc, Zambia.
(The University of Zambia, 2021) Katongo, Kangwa
Mining at Kansanshi is currently conducted in two pits namely Main and North West pit. Mining at both pits is conducted by conventional open pit methods involving 18 hydraulic excavators and a mining fleet of haul 86 trucks.There has a been a general concern on the mined material tonnes (BCMs)/reconciliation and misplacements of material at Kansanshi Mining site which has led to increased mining costs as a result of: reduced truck deployment, increased truck and shovel waiting time, reduced production and reduced grade/quality of ore delivered to crushers.With the in-pit haulage distance increasing from 1335 RL to 1195 RL, there is need to address the issues causing the increase in mining cost which currently stands at US$12.4/BCMs as a matter of priority. The other problem has been on the inconsistencies of reporting fleet performances in terms of Availability and Utilisation. This has resulted into manipulation of figures by some operators. This study therefore seeks to monitor and compare the application of high precision mining through optimised loading and hauling operations. The study focuses on the optimization of haulage using High Precision Mining (HPM) through use of Wenco’s dispatching algorithm, which is designed to automatically assign trucks in order to achieve the best utilization of all mining equipment and maximize production. In order to accomplish the set objectives, the study involved establishing the precise bucket positioning, determining production rates and monitoring the material type and quality /grade of ore delivered to the crushers. With the tolerance of X=0.5m, Y=0.5m and Z=0.5m, it was noted that the events of a bucket mining out of the assigned polygon were reduced to a few cent meters in distance from 34% to 15% and from 10% to 8% in terms of mismatches and cannot reconcile bucket loads respectively. This entails a reduced mining dilution in the X and Y axis of about 85% based on the quality of ore delivered to the crushers. In terms of mining to correct elevations, a tolerance in the Z axis of ±0.3m was achieved based on the bucket size of the loading equipment. The X and Y axis tolerance was also reduced to ±0.3m for improved accuracy in between boundaries of various material types. The use of precision mining has therefore resulted in reduced mining cost of about US$10.3/BCM, improved fleet/production reporting, high grade of the material delivered to the crushers of about 75% from the previous 65%.
Application of remote sensing using a GIS based soil water assessment tool(SWAT)to estimate river discharge in the Kabompo river basin-Zambia
(2012-01-18) Mwiza, Muzumara
The Kabompo river basin with an area of 72,000 km2, in North-Western Zambia is one of the major tributaries of the upper Zambezi River. Key water resources management problems in the Kabompo include water allocation to agriculture and ecosystems, effects of land-cover change on the flow regime and potential impacts from mine tailing dams. The objectives for the study were to apply Remote Sensing and a GIS based Soil Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) to estimate river discharge for the basin in order to address the water resource management challenges. Because of paucity of observed data in the Kabompo basin, the model primarily depended on remote sensing datasets for calibration and validation. The Kabompo basin was discretized into 177 sub-basins with a total of 1004 hydrological response units. Methodology included the use of a semi-distributed; ArcGIS based Soil Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) software for hydrological modeling. Remote sensing data sets that included weather data, drainage network and slopes, landuse/ land cover and soils were used to create a database for the sub-basins using ArcGIS. The simulated flow from the SWAT model was calibrated with ESA ERS-2 and ENVISAT radar altimetry river stage values converted to discharge. Observed river flow data for six stations over different time periods between 1990 and 2007 were used in validation and uncertainty analysis of the radar altimetry flow data and remotely sensed weather data, respectively. The model’s results showed good correlation with observed data giving a Nash Sutcliffe coefficient of 0.87 and an R² value of 0.93, after calibration. The simulation results obtained from the model can be used in a number of water resources management activities like water rights, water allocation, and flood warning. The model is able to generate estimated river flow and stage values even for un-gauged streams. It’s also able to simulate long-term data of a wider area including inaccessible locations than conventional hydrological techniques. It is concluded that remote sensing is a useful tool for estimation of hydrological data where it is lacking or in unguaged and in accessible areas. Its wide use in a country like Zambia should greatly improve water resources management in a number of areas.
An application of the mass balance technique to study the impacts of the mining operations on the hydrogeochemistry of the Kafue River as it crosses the Copperbelt of Zambia
(2012-08-15) Nkandu, Christopher
A mass balance technique was used to investigate the hydrogeochemistry of the Kafixe river as it crosses the Copperbelt mining area between Raglans farm and Machiya feiTy. Tlie study is done by examining the mass flow-rates often chemical parameters, namely: total dissolved solids, total suspended soUds, elemental cadmium, cobalt, copper, hon, manganese, lead, barium and sulphur. In this study, the aqueous concentrations in the rivers where obtained from samples collected at four sampling stations along the Kafiie river and one station on the Mwambashi river. The volume discharge rates were obtained from the Department of Water aflfaks. Further data was obtained from Zambia ConsoHdated Copper Mines Limited.The mass flows for the parameters are computed on a monthly basis as the average of the product of the concentrations of the parameters and discharge rates for the particular month.Results obtained indicate that the mass flows of these chemical constituents increase after the river enters the mining areas and decrease after exiting the areas. W\IQ relative impact of the mining operations on the river basin varies fiom place to place and chemical to chemical. In the Mwambashi river on one hand, practically all the total dissolved sohds flowing in the river during the dry season seem to emanate from mining operations. On the other hand, dissolved uon flow rates at certain times of the year actually drop as the river enters the area of the mining operations.Redox conditions also seem to have an effect on the speciation of metals hke iron, lead and manganese. Photosynthesis by aquatic plants has been found to determine the level of dissolved oxygen and the redox potential level.Copper flow^s from Fishers farm to Machiya appear to be affected by iron speciation as a result of the ability of iron oxyhydroxides in adsorbing various heavy metals. Hie same seems to apply to lead. For cadmium, mining activities may not be major factor m the mobihsation of the metal since the biggest input of the metal appears to come between Fishers farm and Machiya ferry samphng point. Most of the mining activities discharge their effluent into the Kafiie at points upstream of Fishers farm. This study has thrown some hght on the hydrogeochemical processes taking place in the Kafiie river. It has shown how mine effluent is effecting the water quality in the Kafue river and how the river itself effects the effluent.
Assessing the impact of policy changes on small-scale mining in Tanzania
(2011-07-14) Ngowi, A. Oforo
The Small-Scale Mining (SSM) sub-sector makes a significant contribution to the economy of Tanzania. Major benefits include foreign exchange earnings, generation of income for rural population where alternative means of income are limited and also employs over 500,000 people. Minerals being mined are gold, gemstones, diamonds, construction materials and other minerals. SSM has also played a major role in the discovery of mineral deposits.Because of the above positive factors, the Government of Tanzania has realizedthe importance of this sub-sector and hence instituted measures to develop it.These measure include:The National Investment Policy (1997),Tanzania Investment Act (1997),The Financial Laws (Miscellaneous Amendments) Act (1997),The Mineral Policy of Tanzania (1997), The Mining Act (1998) and The Environmental, Health and Safety Mining Regulations (1999) However, since the inception of these measures, no thorough investigations have been done to assess the impact of the measures. The main objectives of this study, therefore, are to analyse these measures and assess their impact on the SSM subsector.The major constraints hindering the development the sub-sector and the strategies for overcoming them are also analysed.As part of the study, a field survey was carried out in major SSM centres in Dares-Salaam, Arusha and Songea. The survey was carried out by use of questionnaires and direct interviews with eighty-five people in the categories of small-scale miners (50), mineral traders (20) and Government officials (15). Results from the study indicate that while some of the measures being persued by the Government are adequate and well understood by all the stakeholders in the mining sector, some are not. Some of the areas which need improvements were identified as human resource management, infrastructure, training and legal framework. In the final analysis it was concluded that the measures have produced more positive impacts than negative ones. Recommendations/suggestions to reduce or eliminate the negative impacts are also presented.
Assessing the use of exfiltration pervious pavements as a best management practice for storm water management for Lusaka urban
(The University of Zambia, 2020) Banda, Naphtallie
Stormwater management is being justified as a fundamental line of consideration in achieving sustainable urban development. Lusaka urban experiences impacts ensuing from developments in form of urban floods. This study was undertaken in Lusaka urban to assess the use of a full exfiltration pervious pavement system as a best management practice for stormwater management. Based on the ICPI guidelines, the study involved a feasibility assessment to select areas supporting full exfiltration pervious pavements, construction of pervious pavements (PICP) in 3 sites, conducting infiltration tests on the constructed pavement systems and monitoring of water infiltrating below the pavement systems succeeding storm events for the study period. A t-test was used to compare significant differences and regression analysis was used for determining relationships. Key observations are that the central eastern part of the study area has soil physical characteristics supporting full exfiltration pavement systems under which the sites were selected. Infiltration rates on the installed pavement systems with 5mm spacers ranged from 774cm/hr. to 823cm/hr. The average depth of water estimated to have been contributed to the immediate unsaturated zone below the pavement systems through infiltration during each observed rainfall events ranged from 140mm to 211.4mm in 1100mm depth of soil. The study concluded that full exfiltration pervious pavement systems as a best management practice can be integrated with drainage networks for Lusaka urban to reduce floods ensuing from developments. The system will mimic natural environments which allow infiltration of stormwater to potentially contribute to groundwater. Key words: Stormwater, Best management practices, Pervious pavement, Exfiltration
Assessing the use of exfiltration pervious pavements as a best management practice for storm water management for Lusaka urban
(The University of Zambia, 2020) Banda, Naphtallie
Stormwater management is being justified as a fundamental line of consideration in achieving sustainable urban development. Lusaka urban experiences impacts ensuing from developments in form of urban floods. This study was undertaken in Lusaka urban to assess the use of a full exfiltration pervious pavement system as a best management practice for stormwater management. Based on the ICPI guidelines, the study involved a feasibility assessment to select areas supporting full exfiltration pervious pavements, construction of pervious pavements (PICP) in 3 sites, conducting infiltration tests on the constructed pavement systems and monitoring of water infiltrating below the pavement systems succeeding storm events for the study period. A t-test was used to compare significant differences and regression analysis was used for determining relationships. Key observations are that the central eastern part of the study area has soil physical characteristics supporting full exfiltration pavement systems under which the sites were selected. Infiltration rates on the installed pavement systems with 5mm spacers ranged from 774cm/hr. to 823cm/hr. The average depth of water estimated to have been contributed to the immediate unsaturated zone below the pavement systems through infiltration during each observed rainfall events ranged from 140mm to 211.4mm in 1100mm depth of soil. The study concluded that full exfiltration pervious pavement systems as a best management practice can be integrated with drainage networks for Lusaka urban to reduce floods ensuing from developments. The system will mimic natural environments which allow infiltration of stormwater to potentially contribute to groundwater. Key words: Stormwater, Best management practices, Pervious pavement, Exfiltration
Assessment of river-groundwater interactions in the Barotse floodplain, Western Zambia.
(The University of Zambia, 2022) Mataa, Mulema
Floodplains are among the most dynamic, productive, diverse, and threatened ecosystems in the world. Their interactions between ground and surface water is a key element in understanding the resilience of floodplains to hydrological changes, especially with the advent of climate change and variability that has affected many aquatic ecosystems. Conjunctive evaluation of ground and surface water in floodplains is critical for integrated water resources management. The main objective of this study was to evaluate groundwater-surface water interactions in the Barotse Floodplain. To achieve this objective, remote sensing was employed to identify perennial green vegetated areas with a shallow depth to groundwater table in the floodplain. Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index (SAVI) using Sentinel-2 imagery from 2015 to 2020 using a cloud computing approach in Google Earth Engine (GEE), were used to identify riverine perrennially green vegetation. Digital filtering using “EcoHydRology Library” in R statistical package was used to determine the Base Flow Index (BFI) from the hydrograph discharge data collected from the three main gauging stations (Lukulu, Matongo and Senanga) along the Zambezi River. Hydrochemistry was employed to determine the composition of the different water sources and identify the genetic link between the local and regional flow of ground water and interactions with the Zambezi River. In addition, water samples collected from various water sources were analysed for stable isotope [deuterium (2H) and oxygen (18O)] to determine the origin and identify the relationships between ground and surface water. Statistical analysis was applied to determine the significance of the correlation between remote sensed data and ground based measurements including, pH, electrical conductivity (EC) and dissolved oxygen (DO).The results of the NDVI map shows a high occurrence of groundwater dependent vegetation downstream of the floodplain. These locations have a shallow depth to groundwater table and other locations had occurances of springs. The average baseflow index (BFI) in five hydrological years from October 2004 to September 2009 shows an average of 46.5 percent baseflow to the river flow across the wet and dry season. Furthermore, baseflow averages up to 90 percent of the flow during the dry season between August to October when the flood water has receeded. The hydrochemistry shows a high concentration in calcium and the bicarbonate ion in both river and groundwater. The water was concluded to be that of a CaHCO3 type. From the stable isotopes the results show recharge from precipitation as values plotted on the meteoric line. Both river and groundwater stable isotopes (δ18O: -57.4 ‰ to 1.4 ‰ and δ2H :-7.5 ‰ to 3.3 ‰ ) had a similar signature indicating that groundwater was discharging into the river channel. Results of statistics between base flow as an index and ground based measurements show a strong correlation between baseflow index (BFI) and dissolved oxygen (DO) indicating that an increase in baseflow increases the dissolved oxygen concentration in the river system. Overall, results show that the lower reach of the Zambezi River channel was a ‘gaining stream’ as groundwater is discharging into the river, whereas the upper reach was a ‘losing stream’ as the river channel tends to discharge into the groundwater. This study demonstrates that the Barotse Floodplain is a proportionally groundwater dependant ecosystem as its functionality in provision of ecosystem products and services requires groundwater. Conservation of this wetland requires prudent protection of groundwater aquifer systems.
Assessment of river-groundwater interactions in the Barotse floodplain, Western Zambia.
(The University of Zambia, 2022) Mataa, Mulema
Floodplains are among the most dynamic, productive, diverse, and threatened ecosystems in the world. Their interactions between ground and surface water is a key element in understanding the resilience of floodplains to hydrological changes, especially with the advent of climate change and variability that has affected many aquatic ecosystems. Conjunctive evaluation of ground and surface water in floodplains is critical for integrated water resources management. The main objective of this study was to evaluate groundwater-surface water interactions in the Barotse Floodplain. To achieve this objective, remote sensing was employed to identify perennial green vegetated areas with a shallow depth to groundwater table in the floodplain. Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index (SAVI) using Sentinel-2 imagery from 2015 to 2020 using a cloud computing approach in Google Earth Engine (GEE), were used to identify riverine perrennially green vegetation. Digital filtering using “EcoHydRology Library” in R statistical package was used to determine the Base Flow Index (BFI) from the hydrograph discharge data collected from the three main gauging stations (Lukulu, Matongo and Senanga) along the Zambezi River. Hydrochemistry was employed to determine the composition of the different water sources and identify the genetic link between the local and regional flow of ground water and interactions with the Zambezi River. In addition, water samples collected from various water sources were analysed for stable isotope [deuterium (2H) and oxygen (18O)] to determine the origin and identify the relationships between ground and surface water. Statistical analysis was applied to determine the significance of the correlation between remote sensed data and ground based measurements including, pH, electrical conductivity (EC) and dissolved oxygen (DO).The results of the NDVI map shows a high occurrence of groundwater dependent vegetation downstream of the floodplain. These locations have a shallow depth to groundwater table and other locations had occurances of springs. The average baseflow index (BFI) in five hydrological years from October 2004 to September 2009 shows an average of 46.5 percent baseflow to the river flow across the wet and dry season. Furthermore, baseflow averages up to 90 percent of the flow during the dry season between August to October when the flood water has receeded. The hydrochemistry shows a high concentration in calcium and the bicarbonate ion in both river and groundwater. The water was concluded to be that of a CaHCO3 type. From the stable isotopes the results show recharge from precipitation as values plotted on the meteoric line. Both river and groundwater stable isotopes (δ18O: -57.4 ‰ to 1.4 ‰ and δ2H :-7.5 ‰ to 3.3 ‰ ) had a similar signature indicating that groundwater was discharging into the river channel. Results of statistics between base flow as an index and ground based measurements show a strong correlation between baseflow index (BFI) and dissolved oxygen (DO) indicating that an increase in baseflow increases the dissolved oxygen concentration in the river system. Overall, results show that the lower reach of the Zambezi River channel was a ‘gaining stream’ as groundwater is discharging into the river, whereas the upper reach was a ‘losing stream’ as the river channel tends to discharge into the groundwater. This study demonstrates that the Barotse Floodplain is a proportionally groundwater dependant ecosystem as its functionality in provision of ecosystem products and services requires groundwater. Conservation of this wetland requires prudent protection of groundwater aquifer systems.
Assessment of surface water availability in Solwezi River Basin, NothWestern Province, Zambia
(University of Zambia, 2016) Fulayi, Mirriam
This study assessed surface water availability in Solwezi River basin in Northwestern Province of Zambia. The main objective was to quantify various components of the water balance to ascertain surface water availability in Solwezi River Basin in view of the increasing water demand. Climate data collected comprising rainfall, temperature and water abstraction were analyzed using Runoff coefficient approach, Thornthwaite and Water Balance methods to determine inflows and outflows in the catchment. The water balance model developed revealed that the total inflows of the surface runoff generated in the catchment was 985,841m3/day while the outflows amounted to 1,078,209.8 m3/day. The outflows were comprised of 885,938m3/day of water lost via evapotranspiration, 42,678.9 m3/day water abstracted for anthropogenic activities, 13,599.36m3/day environmental flow and 135, 993.6m3/day water leaving the catchment as stream flow. The inflows were exceeded by the outflows such that the water balance results indicated a negative value of -92,368.86m3/day of the surface water available in the catchment. Consequently, there was a surface water deficit indicating that there is no surplus water in the catchment to meet the current water demand. However, the river was still flowing because of the groundwater recharge which was not accounted for as the study only focused on the surface water runoff generated from rainfall received in the catchment. Overall, it is concluded that there is inadequate water in Solwezi River Basin to meet the current water demand. The local water utility company is encouraged to find additional water sources to meet the apparent current surface water deficit in Solwezi River basin.
Assessment of the dynamics of surface hydrology and water quality of the Barotse floodplains, western Zambia.
(The University of Zambia, 2022) Chabala, Anthony
The seasonal interactions among rivers, floodplains, vegetation and anthropogenic activities result in highly dynamic systems, which tend to exhibit distinctly different biogeochemical patterns throughout the wet and dry seasons. An assessment and characterization of the spatial-temporal variability of water quality of the Barotse Floodplain, Western Zambia was based on three major components: biological, physical and chemical properties. Samples were collected and analysed for two successive years for both wet and dry seasons. Further, a hydrological model was developed using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) for predicting sediment yields into the floodplain. This was done to investigate for any heavy metal presence in water and sediments due to upstream mining activities, and nutrient transport mechanisms for the separate seasons. Results from bacteriological tests indicated that coliforms were highest on the Mongu-Senanga Transect (85.7%), which had Too-Numerous-To-Count (TNTC> 200 coliforms) readings on several points due to a number of human induced activities. Physio-chemical characteristics generally showed a low pH (6.5-6.9) for the dry season as compared to the pH (6.9-7.5) for the wet season. The Luanginga River, at the confluence of the Zambezi River, had the highest turbidity (87.9 NTU), electrical conductivity (EC) and total dissolved solids (TDS). Results from the hydrological model gave sediment distribution in the floodplain with 0.609 tons/year/subbasin as the highest yield of sediments in the floodplain from the Luanginga River. The model calibrated and validated with its performance monitored by the P and R-factor. The parameters read of: P-factor 0.5 to 0.75; and R-factor 0.56 to 1.36 respectively. In conclusion, this study shows that the Barotse Floodplain is still in a pristine state and therefore results from this research may be used as baseline information for future work. Due to the upstream large scale copper mining and increased anthropogenic activities via the Luanginga River leading to high turbidly, a proxy to the high sedimentation observed, continuous monitoring is encouraged
Assessment of the Impact of Climate Change on Water Resources in the Lwitikila River, Mpika District
(2012-01-19) Mphande, Goodfellow
This study assesses the impact of Climate Change on water resources in the Lwitikila River located in Mpika District of Northern Zambia. In the past few years, downstream water users have had conflicts over the use of limited water resources in Lwitikila River. There are reports that the old furrows taking water from the river have dried up. The local people have also indicated that the quantity of the water in the river has reduced greatly such that they have been forced to construct new furrows that take water to their gardens. Therefore, the main aim of this study is to find out the impact of climate change on water resources in the Lwitikila River. The study analyses the effects that temperature, sunshine hours and rainfall variations have on discharge and water level measurements. Furthermore, the study assesses the local people’s response and adaptability strategies to the effects of climate change. In order to effectively conduct this study, hydrological and meteorological data ranging from 1969 to 2008 has been used and was obtained from the Departments of Water Affairs and Meteorology respectively. The data which originally consisted of daily readings was computed using Excel into monthly and annual averages and thereafter analysed using graphical correlation method. An interview guide was used to obtain qualitative data from the locals and other professionals with knowledge and experience of climate change and its adaptability strategies. Results obtained from the study indicate that mean temperatures and maximum October temperatures have increased in the last ten years in the range of about 0.15⁰C to 0.20⁰C and have probably led to increased annual rainfall ranging between 30mm and 40mm which has in turn contributed to high water levels and flows thereby causing flooding in some low lying areas of Mpika District. The study has shown that apart from variations in temperature, sunshine hours and rainfall, there are many other factors that affect water level and discharge in Lwitikila River. Among the prominent factors observed to be affecting water level and stream flow are unlawful diversions of water through construction of furrows upstream, cutting down of trees along the river course and poor methods of cultivation. The results obtained from this study will be useful in the formulation of better adaptation strategies that will lessen the impact of climate change on water resources in Lwitikila River.
An assessment of the lapidary industry in Zambia
(2012-10-08) Simwanza, Zion Ephraim
Zambia is one of the major gemstone producers of the world. The global value of rough Emerald production is estimated at US$1 billion a year. Available data indicate that Zambia accounts for about 20% of this value. Apart from emeralds, there are also several other important gemstones produced in Zambia. These include beryl, aquamarine, tourmaline, garnets, amethyst, citrine and rock crystal. Although the country is endowed with an abundance of these precious stones backed by a long history of gemstone mining, there has been no corresponding growth in downstream processing i.e. the lapidary industry. Zambia exports almost all of its gemstones as rough material. This obviously costs the country value-added earnings. The importing countries cut and polish gemstones and sometimes set them in jewellery, which they later re-export to major markets of the world under their respective national identities at a far higher value. Despite the national mining policy stressing downstream processing before export of any mineral commodity with penalties imposed for flouting, there has been laxity in its application to gemstones. Paradoxically, rough gemstones have even been granted a Non-Traditional export Status although they do not enjoy the 15% income tax, which the members of this category normally pay.Given the significant economic potential of setting up a lapidary industry, this study provides a major attempt at investigating problems (constraints) that have adversely affected the development of the sector. Included in the study are issues, affecting production (i.e. supply) as well as marketing constraints. Finally based on the findings of the study, recommendations are proposed.
Carbon dynamics of two river systems in Zambia: A comparative study of the Zambezi and the Kafue Rivers
(2015-01-29) Nyoni, Chisoni Frank
This study focuses on the spatial and temporal variability of various carbon fractions and fluxes in relation to major biogeochemical parameters in the Zambezi River in Zambia and its major tributary, the Kafue River. Concentrations and composition of stable isotopes of dissolved organic carbon, particulate organic carbon and dissolved inorganic carbon were measured for a range of biogeochemical characteristics. Physico-chemical parameters, aquatic metabolism and partial pressure of CO2 (pCO2) were measured using multi-meters and headspace technique to determine the dynamics of carbon. To determine factors influencing the two river systems, stable isotope compositions were also used. Results indicate that pH decreased (7.4 to 6.9 on average) whereas dissolved organic carbon (DOC) increased (3.1 to 4.5 mg/L on average) over sections of the river that traverse extensive floodplains in both rivers. Weathering and dissolution of silicate elements predominated in the Zambezi whereas carbonate weathering and dissolution in the Kafue River, making dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) twice as high (1.6 mmol/L on average) in the Kafue River compared to the Zambezi River (0.7 mmol/L on average). Heterotrophic respiration in the floodplains resulted in the depletion of dissolved oxygen (6.7 to 1.8 mg/L on average). The pCO2 averaged 2,880 and 4,426 ppm during the wet season and 944 and 2,790 ppm during the dry season on the Zambezi and Kafue rivers, respectively. The isotopic signature for DOC (δ13C-DOC) for both rivers averaged around -22.0 ‰ suggesting DOC is of mixed origin, C3 (65% ) and C4 (35%) vegetation. Isotopic signature for POC (δ13C-POC) in both rivers ranged between -29‰ and -24‰ suggesting more aquatic produced phytoplankton on reservoirs (C3 origin) and terrestrially derived C3 vegetation along the river channels. The variations in the isotopic signature for DIC (δ13C – DIC) values (-22 to -5‰) for both rivers could largely be explained by the different relative contributions of silicate and carbonate weathering as observed in the Si/Ca ratio. The isotopic signature on the Kariba Reservoir was enriched (-4‰ to -1‰) in the 13C isotope. The carbon dynamics of the Zambezi and the Kafue rivers are different. Differences in geology, land-use (agriculture and mining) and hydrological regimes of the two river systems account for the majority of the differences observed in the patterns of carbon on the two river systems.
Characterisation and temporal variability assessment of groundwater quality in Petauke Town, Eastern Province
(2013-11-11) Mbewe, Solomon
The study was aimed at contributing to the provision of good quality groundwater supply in Petauke District. It comprised collection and analysis of 50 groundwater samples from boreholes in the dry and wet season in Petauke Town. Water exit points were sterilised before collection of samples. Physical properties were assessed on-site using potable pH and conductivity meters, whereas samples for chemical and microbiological analysis were collected in sterilised bottles and transported to the Environmental Engineering Laboratory at the University of Zambia for analysis. In the laboratory, the numbers of total and faecal coliforms were determined using the membrane filtration technique whereas for chemical analysis, samples were analysed for major ion chemistry using the standard methods after APHA (1998). The quality of analytical data was evaluated by computing the ionic balances for all the samples.Furthermore, data for the major ions (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, SO42-, Cl-, CaCO3 2-,HCO3 2-) were plotted on the Piper diagram so as to understand the evolution of hydro-chemical parameters of groundwater in the town. Groundwater classification was done after WHO (2006) whereas temporal variability of water quality between the dry and wet season was assessed using the ANOVA. The suitability of water for drinking was assessed by comparing the data obtained in the field and laboratory analysis to the WHO (2008) and ZABS (2008) limits. Parameters with values above the limits were identified as groundwater contaminants in the town.The study revealed that groundwater in the town was characterised by low pH (6.17),high iron (2.63 mg/l) and high bicarbonate content (609.6 mg/l), high total hardness (as 598 mgCaCO3/l) and the abundance of major ions were in the order of Ca > Mg >Na> K = HCO3 > Cl >SO4. Hydrochemical facies identified were Ca-HCO3 and Ca (Mg) HCO3 type. Fifty eight percent of groundwater was hard, 26% was moderately hard, 14% was very hard and only 2% was soft. Observed values of most of the parameters fell within the ZABS and WHO guidelines for drinking water except for nitrate (10%), total colifoms (72%), faecal coliforms (56%), pH (28%), iron (24%) and total hardness (58%). The ANOVA showed that there was no significant seasonal variation in groundwater quality. Groundwater contaminants in the town were found to be total and faecal coliforms, nitrate, pH, iron and total hardness. Groundwater in Petauke Town belongs to the CaHCO3 and Ca (Mg) HCO3 group and is hard. Most of the boreholes (75%) were microbiologically contaminated. There was no seasonal variability in groundwater quality and most of the parameters fell within the WHO/ZABS guidelines for drinking water except total and faecal coliforms, total hardness, turbidity, nitrates, nitrites pH and iron which were identified as contaminants. The over-abundance of carbonates, iron and calcium are naturally caused whereas microbiological pollution and excess nitrates are caused by anthropogenic activities. To prevent the effects of water pollution on human health, there is need for effective groundwater monitoring and chlorination of boreholes.
Characterisation of Saline groundwater based on groung-based time-domain electromagnetic soundings in the Machile River Basin, South-Western Zambia
(2015-04-13) Tembo, Alice
Much of southern Africa is semiarid and heavily dependent on groundwater resources. However, access to safe and clean water is an important feature of the natural environment, a human right and a basic requirement for economic development. Like in other parts of the Kalahari Basin, parts of Sesheke and Kazungula districts have significant groundwater salinity problems which affect the use of groundwater as a freshwater resource. This study mapped the spatial distribution of saline groundwater in order to enhance the overall understanding of its existence. The study was undertaken in the Machile River Basin which is a topographic depression located partly in Sesheke District in the Western Province and partly in Kazungula District in the Southern Province of Zambia. The ground-based Time-Domain Electromagnetic (TDEM) method, based on the Maxwell’s equations, was used in the study for data collection and the SiTEM-SEMDI software for data analysis. Other software used include ArcGIS and Geoscene3D for spatial data analysis and geological modelling, respectively. Research findings indicate that rock formation resistivities increase with depth as follows: 3,173m at 10m, 10,616m at 30m, 17,186m at 50m and 19,738Ωm at 80m. The extent of saline groundwater with low resistivities of less than 35Ωm was less at 10m depth and more at 30, 50 and 80m and that salinity was concentrated around the depression bordering the two districts stretching from the Zambezi River going up in the northern direction, suggesting that 10m is generally the appropriate depth to drill for fresh groundwater. It was also observed that the subsurface formation of the Machile River Basin comprises the unconsolidated Kalahari sediments underlain by sandstones of the Barotse Formation of the Kalahari Supergroup which is also underlain by rocks of the Karoo (Batoka Basalts) and Basement Complex such as granites, gneisses and schists. It is therefore concluded that the increase in resistivities of formations with depth indicates the presence of formations ranging from sand, sandstone, basalts, granites and other rocks of the Undifferentiated Karoo and Basement Complex. It is also concluded that saline groundwater mostly exists in unconsolidated Kalahari sediments and sandstones.
Characteristics of trends and relationships among climate variables in Zambia
(University of Zambia, 2016) Mtonga, Christopher
This study embarked on trend analysis to understand the relationship that exists in weather, precipitation and river flow using time series data. The study area was the entire country of Zambia. Secondary hydrological and weather data used was representative of the six catchment areas of the country and the three agro-ecological zones. Weather records were obtained from SWAT- soil, an internet based software that stores daily meteorological data across the globe from 1979 to 2009 were temperature was extracted and used as reference for weather data. For stream flows, 40 hydrological gauge data sets were acquired from DWA for the same period across the country. The hydrological data sets were then classified into clusters using the five indicators of hydrologic alterations namely; the frequency of flows, the magnitude of flows, the duration of flows, the timing of flows and the rates of change in flows. The metrics for these indicators of hydrologic alterations were obtained using time series analysis (TSA) in river analysis package (RAP). Stream-flows of each station were grouped in three clusters according to precipitation patterns in agro-ecological zones and according to the area each stream drained. These clusters were used together with the corresponding temperature data sets for trend analyses and linear regressions. It was found that firstly, there was an upward trend in temperature across the clusters for the temporal window period of the study. Secondly, temperature is a predictor of precipitation and discharge in streams across the country based on the P values (0.10 – 0.50) and r2 values (0.008 – 0.336) obtained from regression and trend analysis. This was observed in 39 hydrological and meteorological gauge stations used. Thirdly, temperature predicts stream-flow in rivers with large catchment areas (>40,000km2) across all agro-ecological zones and perennial rivers in Agroecological zone III. It was further found that temperature does not predict stream-flow of ephemeral streams based on the P values (>0.50) obtained on temperature-discharge relationship of these streams. Based on the findings, it is concluded that temperature has been increasing with time and that it predicts precipitation negatively across the agro-ecological zones in Zambia. Climate variables are characteristic of increasing or decreasing trend in Zambia.
Cobalt recovery from old Nkana Copper Slag via solid state carbothermic reduction and sulphation
(2013-01-18) Mututubanya, Alex
Large quantities of old copper smelting slag containing cobalt exist at Nkana Division of Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines. Recovery of cobalt from the slag would contribute significantly to the economy of Zambia. A literature review, however, indicated that although processes have been developed for the recovery of cobalt from primary ores and converter slags, none have been for dump slags. The potential economic benefits of cobalt recovery and non¬existence of a process for recovery of the metal from dump slags stimulated interest in undertaking the study reported in this thesis. Thermodynamic considerations indicated that cobalt could be recovered from old Nkana copper slag via solid state carbothermic reduction and sulphation. Consequently, sulphation and carbothermic reduction experiments were carried out in the temperature range 600 to 1000°C for times ranging from 1 to 6 hours. The experiments were aimed at determining whether the two processes could be suitable as pretreatment steps in the recovery of cobalt from old Nkana copper slag. In addition to reaction temperature and duration, other experimental parameters investigated were; particle size of the slag, relative amounts of the reactants and for sulphation only, the effect of air flowrate.The extent of carbothermic reduction and sulphation were determined by evaluating the percentage of cobalt solubilized from reacted slag samples leached in sulphuric acid to a terminal pH of 1.4-2.0. Solid state carbothermic reduction was carried out in an inert nitrogen atmosphere with charcoal as a reducing agent. The results obtained indicate that solid state carbothermic reduction produces a partially reduced product which can be selectively leached for cobalt. A fair amount of cobalt was leached (52%) from the -0.60 + 0.150mm fraction of slag reduced with 20 % charcoal at 950 °C for two hours. Difficulties of obtaining higher percentages of cobalt leached were due possibly to the formation, during reduction, of non-leachable cobalt ferrites and carbides. Solid state sulphation of old Nkana copper slag was carried out using pyrite and cobalt sulphide concentrates as sulphating agents. The highest amount of cobalt leached at 72% was obtained from the -0.045mm fraction of slag sulphated with pyrite. A 1:1 slag to pyrite ratio was found to be suitable for the solid state sulphation of old Nkana copper slag. The work reported in this thesis consists of four chapters, which are preceded by an introductory section. Chapter one gives the literature review. Chapters two and three are preceded by theoretical considerations, and discuss the results of solid state carbothermic reduction and sulphation, respectively. Each chapter ends with its own references. Chapter four gives the general conclusions.
Copperfields: a history of the impact of the first decade of mining boom in the North Western province of Zambia CIRCA 2002-2005.
(Canberra, 2019) O'callaghan, Margaret

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