Mines

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An analysis of the performance of the manufacturing Industry in Zambia: The engineering manufacturing sub-sector
(2011-07-14) Munakaampe, M. Grain
The Zambian economy in 1964 was among the strongest in Sub-Saharan Africa. Through the years, however, it declined to among the weakest. The manufacturing sector's contribution to GDP declined from a peak of 30 per cent in 1992 to 24 per cent in 1996. The engineering manufacture sub-sector accounted for only 22 per cent of this contribution in 1971, peaking at 26 per cent (1975), but declining to 13 per cent (1996).This study analysed the performance of manufacturing particularly the engineering sub-sector in Zambia from 1964 to 1997. It identified the effects on performance of technology choices,product range, technical and management skills, and operating environment. It also examined the effects of government's economic policies on industry. Trends were compared at macro(sectoral) and micro (firm) levels by in-depth studies of some firms.Data collected was analysed using the Management Systems Analysis Model (MSAM), Statistical Methods (SM) and Total Factor Productivity Growth (TFPG) to determine sources of growth and/or decline in the performance of the manufacturing and engineering industries. Technologies employed by firms were analysed against the background of facility and job design, process variability, total quality management, level of labour skills, plant recapitalisation and modernisation, environmental and energy considerations. The manufacturing technologies in use were further compared with more advanced ones. It was found that TFPG contributed to the growth and decline of both manufacturing and engineering sectors. In both manufacturing sector and engineering sub-sector, there was rapid growth in output from 1964, but this growth declined after 1992 and 1982, respectively. Before 1991, government policies were commandist and did not encourage free enterprise and competition. Prior to 1991, it was also found that the energy crisis (1973), the Rhodesian border closure (1965), the freedom struggle in neighbouring countries and cost of spare parts affected the performance of the economy. However, after 1991, despite the liberalisation of the economy, there were no financial incentives for the struggling and emergent industries.Therefore, industry failed to re-invest in new and more efficient technologies, production methods and total quality management to meet the challenges of an open market economic policy in Zambia. Research and development were neglected both before and after 1991. From this study, it is recommended that both the government and industry need to play their respective parts, with government as a facilitator and formulator of policies conducive for growth of industry and industry itself taking initiatives that facilitate growth. Industrial initiatives must include research and development, investment into newer and more efficient technologies, improvement of existing facilities for better productivity and use of cheaper but sound raw materials. Organisational frameworks and information acquisition, generation, storage and dissemination must be improved. The report, further, concludes that unless this partnership between government and industry is recognised and exploited, all efforts by either the government or industry to resuscitate the economy will be futile.
Application of high precision mining as a way of optimizing loading and hauling operations at Kansanshi mining Plc, Zambia.
(The University of Zambia, 2021) Katongo, Kangwa
Mining at Kansanshi is currently conducted in two pits namely Main and North West pit. Mining at both pits is conducted by conventional open pit methods involving 18 hydraulic excavators and a mining fleet of haul 86 trucks.There has a been a general concern on the mined material tonnes (BCMs)/reconciliation and misplacements of material at Kansanshi Mining site which has led to increased mining costs as a result of: reduced truck deployment, increased truck and shovel waiting time, reduced production and reduced grade/quality of ore delivered to crushers.With the in-pit haulage distance increasing from 1335 RL to 1195 RL, there is need to address the issues causing the increase in mining cost which currently stands at US$12.4/BCMs as a matter of priority. The other problem has been on the inconsistencies of reporting fleet performances in terms of Availability and Utilisation. This has resulted into manipulation of figures by some operators. This study therefore seeks to monitor and compare the application of high precision mining through optimised loading and hauling operations. The study focuses on the optimization of haulage using High Precision Mining (HPM) through use of Wenco’s dispatching algorithm, which is designed to automatically assign trucks in order to achieve the best utilization of all mining equipment and maximize production. In order to accomplish the set objectives, the study involved establishing the precise bucket positioning, determining production rates and monitoring the material type and quality /grade of ore delivered to the crushers. With the tolerance of X=0.5m, Y=0.5m and Z=0.5m, it was noted that the events of a bucket mining out of the assigned polygon were reduced to a few cent meters in distance from 34% to 15% and from 10% to 8% in terms of mismatches and cannot reconcile bucket loads respectively. This entails a reduced mining dilution in the X and Y axis of about 85% based on the quality of ore delivered to the crushers. In terms of mining to correct elevations, a tolerance in the Z axis of ±0.3m was achieved based on the bucket size of the loading equipment. The X and Y axis tolerance was also reduced to ±0.3m for improved accuracy in between boundaries of various material types. The use of precision mining has therefore resulted in reduced mining cost of about US$10.3/BCM, improved fleet/production reporting, high grade of the material delivered to the crushers of about 75% from the previous 65%.
Application of remote sensing using a GIS based soil water assessment tool(SWAT)to estimate river discharge in the Kabompo river basin-Zambia
(2012-01-18) Mwiza, Muzumara
The Kabompo river basin with an area of 72,000 km2, in North-Western Zambia is one of the major tributaries of the upper Zambezi River. Key water resources management problems in the Kabompo include water allocation to agriculture and ecosystems, effects of land-cover change on the flow regime and potential impacts from mine tailing dams. The objectives for the study were to apply Remote Sensing and a GIS based Soil Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) to estimate river discharge for the basin in order to address the water resource management challenges. Because of paucity of observed data in the Kabompo basin, the model primarily depended on remote sensing datasets for calibration and validation. The Kabompo basin was discretized into 177 sub-basins with a total of 1004 hydrological response units. Methodology included the use of a semi-distributed; ArcGIS based Soil Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) software for hydrological modeling. Remote sensing data sets that included weather data, drainage network and slopes, landuse/ land cover and soils were used to create a database for the sub-basins using ArcGIS. The simulated flow from the SWAT model was calibrated with ESA ERS-2 and ENVISAT radar altimetry river stage values converted to discharge. Observed river flow data for six stations over different time periods between 1990 and 2007 were used in validation and uncertainty analysis of the radar altimetry flow data and remotely sensed weather data, respectively. The model’s results showed good correlation with observed data giving a Nash Sutcliffe coefficient of 0.87 and an R² value of 0.93, after calibration. The simulation results obtained from the model can be used in a number of water resources management activities like water rights, water allocation, and flood warning. The model is able to generate estimated river flow and stage values even for un-gauged streams. It’s also able to simulate long-term data of a wider area including inaccessible locations than conventional hydrological techniques. It is concluded that remote sensing is a useful tool for estimation of hydrological data where it is lacking or in unguaged and in accessible areas. Its wide use in a country like Zambia should greatly improve water resources management in a number of areas.
An application of the mass balance technique to study the impacts of the mining operations on the hydrogeochemistry of the Kafue River as it crosses the Copperbelt of Zambia
(2012-08-15) Nkandu, Christopher
A mass balance technique was used to investigate the hydrogeochemistry of the Kafixe river as it crosses the Copperbelt mining area between Raglans farm and Machiya feiTy. Tlie study is done by examining the mass flow-rates often chemical parameters, namely: total dissolved solids, total suspended soUds, elemental cadmium, cobalt, copper, hon, manganese, lead, barium and sulphur. In this study, the aqueous concentrations in the rivers where obtained from samples collected at four sampling stations along the Kafiie river and one station on the Mwambashi river. The volume discharge rates were obtained from the Department of Water aflfaks. Further data was obtained from Zambia ConsoHdated Copper Mines Limited.The mass flows for the parameters are computed on a monthly basis as the average of the product of the concentrations of the parameters and discharge rates for the particular month.Results obtained indicate that the mass flows of these chemical constituents increase after the river enters the mining areas and decrease after exiting the areas. W\IQ relative impact of the mining operations on the river basin varies fiom place to place and chemical to chemical. In the Mwambashi river on one hand, practically all the total dissolved sohds flowing in the river during the dry season seem to emanate from mining operations. On the other hand, dissolved uon flow rates at certain times of the year actually drop as the river enters the area of the mining operations.Redox conditions also seem to have an effect on the speciation of metals hke iron, lead and manganese. Photosynthesis by aquatic plants has been found to determine the level of dissolved oxygen and the redox potential level.Copper flow^s from Fishers farm to Machiya appear to be affected by iron speciation as a result of the ability of iron oxyhydroxides in adsorbing various heavy metals. Hie same seems to apply to lead. For cadmium, mining activities may not be major factor m the mobihsation of the metal since the biggest input of the metal appears to come between Fishers farm and Machiya ferry samphng point. Most of the mining activities discharge their effluent into the Kafiie at points upstream of Fishers farm. This study has thrown some hght on the hydrogeochemical processes taking place in the Kafiie river. It has shown how mine effluent is effecting the water quality in the Kafue river and how the river itself effects the effluent.
Assessing the impact of policy changes on small-scale mining in Tanzania
(2011-07-14) Ngowi, A. Oforo
The Small-Scale Mining (SSM) sub-sector makes a significant contribution to the economy of Tanzania. Major benefits include foreign exchange earnings, generation of income for rural population where alternative means of income are limited and also employs over 500,000 people. Minerals being mined are gold, gemstones, diamonds, construction materials and other minerals. SSM has also played a major role in the discovery of mineral deposits.Because of the above positive factors, the Government of Tanzania has realizedthe importance of this sub-sector and hence instituted measures to develop it.These measure include:The National Investment Policy (1997),Tanzania Investment Act (1997),The Financial Laws (Miscellaneous Amendments) Act (1997),The Mineral Policy of Tanzania (1997), The Mining Act (1998) and The Environmental, Health and Safety Mining Regulations (1999) However, since the inception of these measures, no thorough investigations have been done to assess the impact of the measures. The main objectives of this study, therefore, are to analyse these measures and assess their impact on the SSM subsector.The major constraints hindering the development the sub-sector and the strategies for overcoming them are also analysed.As part of the study, a field survey was carried out in major SSM centres in Dares-Salaam, Arusha and Songea. The survey was carried out by use of questionnaires and direct interviews with eighty-five people in the categories of small-scale miners (50), mineral traders (20) and Government officials (15). Results from the study indicate that while some of the measures being persued by the Government are adequate and well understood by all the stakeholders in the mining sector, some are not. Some of the areas which need improvements were identified as human resource management, infrastructure, training and legal framework. In the final analysis it was concluded that the measures have produced more positive impacts than negative ones. Recommendations/suggestions to reduce or eliminate the negative impacts are also presented.
Assessing the use of exfiltration pervious pavements as a best management practice for storm water management for Lusaka urban
(The University of Zambia, 2020) Banda, Naphtallie
Stormwater management is being justified as a fundamental line of consideration in achieving sustainable urban development. Lusaka urban experiences impacts ensuing from developments in form of urban floods. This study was undertaken in Lusaka urban to assess the use of a full exfiltration pervious pavement system as a best management practice for stormwater management. Based on the ICPI guidelines, the study involved a feasibility assessment to select areas supporting full exfiltration pervious pavements, construction of pervious pavements (PICP) in 3 sites, conducting infiltration tests on the constructed pavement systems and monitoring of water infiltrating below the pavement systems succeeding storm events for the study period. A t-test was used to compare significant differences and regression analysis was used for determining relationships. Key observations are that the central eastern part of the study area has soil physical characteristics supporting full exfiltration pavement systems under which the sites were selected. Infiltration rates on the installed pavement systems with 5mm spacers ranged from 774cm/hr. to 823cm/hr. The average depth of water estimated to have been contributed to the immediate unsaturated zone below the pavement systems through infiltration during each observed rainfall events ranged from 140mm to 211.4mm in 1100mm depth of soil. The study concluded that full exfiltration pervious pavement systems as a best management practice can be integrated with drainage networks for Lusaka urban to reduce floods ensuing from developments. The system will mimic natural environments which allow infiltration of stormwater to potentially contribute to groundwater. Key words: Stormwater, Best management practices, Pervious pavement, Exfiltration
Assessing the use of exfiltration pervious pavements as a best management practice for storm water management for Lusaka urban
(The University of Zambia, 2020) Banda, Naphtallie
Stormwater management is being justified as a fundamental line of consideration in achieving sustainable urban development. Lusaka urban experiences impacts ensuing from developments in form of urban floods. This study was undertaken in Lusaka urban to assess the use of a full exfiltration pervious pavement system as a best management practice for stormwater management. Based on the ICPI guidelines, the study involved a feasibility assessment to select areas supporting full exfiltration pervious pavements, construction of pervious pavements (PICP) in 3 sites, conducting infiltration tests on the constructed pavement systems and monitoring of water infiltrating below the pavement systems succeeding storm events for the study period. A t-test was used to compare significant differences and regression analysis was used for determining relationships. Key observations are that the central eastern part of the study area has soil physical characteristics supporting full exfiltration pavement systems under which the sites were selected. Infiltration rates on the installed pavement systems with 5mm spacers ranged from 774cm/hr. to 823cm/hr. The average depth of water estimated to have been contributed to the immediate unsaturated zone below the pavement systems through infiltration during each observed rainfall events ranged from 140mm to 211.4mm in 1100mm depth of soil. The study concluded that full exfiltration pervious pavement systems as a best management practice can be integrated with drainage networks for Lusaka urban to reduce floods ensuing from developments. The system will mimic natural environments which allow infiltration of stormwater to potentially contribute to groundwater. Key words: Stormwater, Best management practices, Pervious pavement, Exfiltration
Assessment of surface water availability in Solwezi River Basin, NothWestern Province, Zambia
(University of Zambia, 2016) Fulayi, Mirriam
This study assessed surface water availability in Solwezi River basin in Northwestern Province of Zambia. The main objective was to quantify various components of the water balance to ascertain surface water availability in Solwezi River Basin in view of the increasing water demand. Climate data collected comprising rainfall, temperature and water abstraction were analyzed using Runoff coefficient approach, Thornthwaite and Water Balance methods to determine inflows and outflows in the catchment. The water balance model developed revealed that the total inflows of the surface runoff generated in the catchment was 985,841m3/day while the outflows amounted to 1,078,209.8 m3/day. The outflows were comprised of 885,938m3/day of water lost via evapotranspiration, 42,678.9 m3/day water abstracted for anthropogenic activities, 13,599.36m3/day environmental flow and 135, 993.6m3/day water leaving the catchment as stream flow. The inflows were exceeded by the outflows such that the water balance results indicated a negative value of -92,368.86m3/day of the surface water available in the catchment. Consequently, there was a surface water deficit indicating that there is no surplus water in the catchment to meet the current water demand. However, the river was still flowing because of the groundwater recharge which was not accounted for as the study only focused on the surface water runoff generated from rainfall received in the catchment. Overall, it is concluded that there is inadequate water in Solwezi River Basin to meet the current water demand. The local water utility company is encouraged to find additional water sources to meet the apparent current surface water deficit in Solwezi River basin.
Assessment of the Impact of Climate Change on Water Resources in the Lwitikila River, Mpika District
(2012-01-19) Mphande, Goodfellow
This study assesses the impact of Climate Change on water resources in the Lwitikila River located in Mpika District of Northern Zambia. In the past few years, downstream water users have had conflicts over the use of limited water resources in Lwitikila River. There are reports that the old furrows taking water from the river have dried up. The local people have also indicated that the quantity of the water in the river has reduced greatly such that they have been forced to construct new furrows that take water to their gardens. Therefore, the main aim of this study is to find out the impact of climate change on water resources in the Lwitikila River. The study analyses the effects that temperature, sunshine hours and rainfall variations have on discharge and water level measurements. Furthermore, the study assesses the local people’s response and adaptability strategies to the effects of climate change. In order to effectively conduct this study, hydrological and meteorological data ranging from 1969 to 2008 has been used and was obtained from the Departments of Water Affairs and Meteorology respectively. The data which originally consisted of daily readings was computed using Excel into monthly and annual averages and thereafter analysed using graphical correlation method. An interview guide was used to obtain qualitative data from the locals and other professionals with knowledge and experience of climate change and its adaptability strategies. Results obtained from the study indicate that mean temperatures and maximum October temperatures have increased in the last ten years in the range of about 0.15⁰C to 0.20⁰C and have probably led to increased annual rainfall ranging between 30mm and 40mm which has in turn contributed to high water levels and flows thereby causing flooding in some low lying areas of Mpika District. The study has shown that apart from variations in temperature, sunshine hours and rainfall, there are many other factors that affect water level and discharge in Lwitikila River. Among the prominent factors observed to be affecting water level and stream flow are unlawful diversions of water through construction of furrows upstream, cutting down of trees along the river course and poor methods of cultivation. The results obtained from this study will be useful in the formulation of better adaptation strategies that will lessen the impact of climate change on water resources in Lwitikila River.
An assessment of the lapidary industry in Zambia
(2012-10-08) Simwanza, Zion Ephraim
Zambia is one of the major gemstone producers of the world. The global value of rough Emerald production is estimated at US$1 billion a year. Available data indicate that Zambia accounts for about 20% of this value. Apart from emeralds, there are also several other important gemstones produced in Zambia. These include beryl, aquamarine, tourmaline, garnets, amethyst, citrine and rock crystal. Although the country is endowed with an abundance of these precious stones backed by a long history of gemstone mining, there has been no corresponding growth in downstream processing i.e. the lapidary industry. Zambia exports almost all of its gemstones as rough material. This obviously costs the country value-added earnings. The importing countries cut and polish gemstones and sometimes set them in jewellery, which they later re-export to major markets of the world under their respective national identities at a far higher value. Despite the national mining policy stressing downstream processing before export of any mineral commodity with penalties imposed for flouting, there has been laxity in its application to gemstones. Paradoxically, rough gemstones have even been granted a Non-Traditional export Status although they do not enjoy the 15% income tax, which the members of this category normally pay.Given the significant economic potential of setting up a lapidary industry, this study provides a major attempt at investigating problems (constraints) that have adversely affected the development of the sector. Included in the study are issues, affecting production (i.e. supply) as well as marketing constraints. Finally based on the findings of the study, recommendations are proposed.
Carbon dynamics of two river systems in Zambia: A comparative study of the Zambezi and the Kafue Rivers
(2015-01-29) Nyoni, Chisoni Frank
This study focuses on the spatial and temporal variability of various carbon fractions and fluxes in relation to major biogeochemical parameters in the Zambezi River in Zambia and its major tributary, the Kafue River. Concentrations and composition of stable isotopes of dissolved organic carbon, particulate organic carbon and dissolved inorganic carbon were measured for a range of biogeochemical characteristics. Physico-chemical parameters, aquatic metabolism and partial pressure of CO2 (pCO2) were measured using multi-meters and headspace technique to determine the dynamics of carbon. To determine factors influencing the two river systems, stable isotope compositions were also used. Results indicate that pH decreased (7.4 to 6.9 on average) whereas dissolved organic carbon (DOC) increased (3.1 to 4.5 mg/L on average) over sections of the river that traverse extensive floodplains in both rivers. Weathering and dissolution of silicate elements predominated in the Zambezi whereas carbonate weathering and dissolution in the Kafue River, making dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) twice as high (1.6 mmol/L on average) in the Kafue River compared to the Zambezi River (0.7 mmol/L on average). Heterotrophic respiration in the floodplains resulted in the depletion of dissolved oxygen (6.7 to 1.8 mg/L on average). The pCO2 averaged 2,880 and 4,426 ppm during the wet season and 944 and 2,790 ppm during the dry season on the Zambezi and Kafue rivers, respectively. The isotopic signature for DOC (δ13C-DOC) for both rivers averaged around -22.0 ‰ suggesting DOC is of mixed origin, C3 (65% ) and C4 (35%) vegetation. Isotopic signature for POC (δ13C-POC) in both rivers ranged between -29‰ and -24‰ suggesting more aquatic produced phytoplankton on reservoirs (C3 origin) and terrestrially derived C3 vegetation along the river channels. The variations in the isotopic signature for DIC (δ13C – DIC) values (-22 to -5‰) for both rivers could largely be explained by the different relative contributions of silicate and carbonate weathering as observed in the Si/Ca ratio. The isotopic signature on the Kariba Reservoir was enriched (-4‰ to -1‰) in the 13C isotope. The carbon dynamics of the Zambezi and the Kafue rivers are different. Differences in geology, land-use (agriculture and mining) and hydrological regimes of the two river systems account for the majority of the differences observed in the patterns of carbon on the two river systems.
Characterisation and temporal variability assessment of groundwater quality in Petauke Town, Eastern Province
(2013-11-11) Mbewe, Solomon
The study was aimed at contributing to the provision of good quality groundwater supply in Petauke District. It comprised collection and analysis of 50 groundwater samples from boreholes in the dry and wet season in Petauke Town. Water exit points were sterilised before collection of samples. Physical properties were assessed on-site using potable pH and conductivity meters, whereas samples for chemical and microbiological analysis were collected in sterilised bottles and transported to the Environmental Engineering Laboratory at the University of Zambia for analysis. In the laboratory, the numbers of total and faecal coliforms were determined using the membrane filtration technique whereas for chemical analysis, samples were analysed for major ion chemistry using the standard methods after APHA (1998). The quality of analytical data was evaluated by computing the ionic balances for all the samples.Furthermore, data for the major ions (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, SO42-, Cl-, CaCO3 2-,HCO3 2-) were plotted on the Piper diagram so as to understand the evolution of hydro-chemical parameters of groundwater in the town. Groundwater classification was done after WHO (2006) whereas temporal variability of water quality between the dry and wet season was assessed using the ANOVA. The suitability of water for drinking was assessed by comparing the data obtained in the field and laboratory analysis to the WHO (2008) and ZABS (2008) limits. Parameters with values above the limits were identified as groundwater contaminants in the town.The study revealed that groundwater in the town was characterised by low pH (6.17),high iron (2.63 mg/l) and high bicarbonate content (609.6 mg/l), high total hardness (as 598 mgCaCO3/l) and the abundance of major ions were in the order of Ca > Mg >Na> K = HCO3 > Cl >SO4. Hydrochemical facies identified were Ca-HCO3 and Ca (Mg) HCO3 type. Fifty eight percent of groundwater was hard, 26% was moderately hard, 14% was very hard and only 2% was soft. Observed values of most of the parameters fell within the ZABS and WHO guidelines for drinking water except for nitrate (10%), total colifoms (72%), faecal coliforms (56%), pH (28%), iron (24%) and total hardness (58%). The ANOVA showed that there was no significant seasonal variation in groundwater quality. Groundwater contaminants in the town were found to be total and faecal coliforms, nitrate, pH, iron and total hardness. Groundwater in Petauke Town belongs to the CaHCO3 and Ca (Mg) HCO3 group and is hard. Most of the boreholes (75%) were microbiologically contaminated. There was no seasonal variability in groundwater quality and most of the parameters fell within the WHO/ZABS guidelines for drinking water except total and faecal coliforms, total hardness, turbidity, nitrates, nitrites pH and iron which were identified as contaminants. The over-abundance of carbonates, iron and calcium are naturally caused whereas microbiological pollution and excess nitrates are caused by anthropogenic activities. To prevent the effects of water pollution on human health, there is need for effective groundwater monitoring and chlorination of boreholes.
Characterisation of Saline groundwater based on groung-based time-domain electromagnetic soundings in the Machile River Basin, South-Western Zambia
(2015-04-13) Tembo, Alice
Much of southern Africa is semiarid and heavily dependent on groundwater resources. However, access to safe and clean water is an important feature of the natural environment, a human right and a basic requirement for economic development. Like in other parts of the Kalahari Basin, parts of Sesheke and Kazungula districts have significant groundwater salinity problems which affect the use of groundwater as a freshwater resource. This study mapped the spatial distribution of saline groundwater in order to enhance the overall understanding of its existence. The study was undertaken in the Machile River Basin which is a topographic depression located partly in Sesheke District in the Western Province and partly in Kazungula District in the Southern Province of Zambia. The ground-based Time-Domain Electromagnetic (TDEM) method, based on the Maxwell’s equations, was used in the study for data collection and the SiTEM-SEMDI software for data analysis. Other software used include ArcGIS and Geoscene3D for spatial data analysis and geological modelling, respectively. Research findings indicate that rock formation resistivities increase with depth as follows: 3,173m at 10m, 10,616m at 30m, 17,186m at 50m and 19,738Ωm at 80m. The extent of saline groundwater with low resistivities of less than 35Ωm was less at 10m depth and more at 30, 50 and 80m and that salinity was concentrated around the depression bordering the two districts stretching from the Zambezi River going up in the northern direction, suggesting that 10m is generally the appropriate depth to drill for fresh groundwater. It was also observed that the subsurface formation of the Machile River Basin comprises the unconsolidated Kalahari sediments underlain by sandstones of the Barotse Formation of the Kalahari Supergroup which is also underlain by rocks of the Karoo (Batoka Basalts) and Basement Complex such as granites, gneisses and schists. It is therefore concluded that the increase in resistivities of formations with depth indicates the presence of formations ranging from sand, sandstone, basalts, granites and other rocks of the Undifferentiated Karoo and Basement Complex. It is also concluded that saline groundwater mostly exists in unconsolidated Kalahari sediments and sandstones.
Characteristics of trends and relationships among climate variables in Zambia
(University of Zambia, 2016) Mtonga, Christopher
This study embarked on trend analysis to understand the relationship that exists in weather, precipitation and river flow using time series data. The study area was the entire country of Zambia. Secondary hydrological and weather data used was representative of the six catchment areas of the country and the three agro-ecological zones. Weather records were obtained from SWAT- soil, an internet based software that stores daily meteorological data across the globe from 1979 to 2009 were temperature was extracted and used as reference for weather data. For stream flows, 40 hydrological gauge data sets were acquired from DWA for the same period across the country. The hydrological data sets were then classified into clusters using the five indicators of hydrologic alterations namely; the frequency of flows, the magnitude of flows, the duration of flows, the timing of flows and the rates of change in flows. The metrics for these indicators of hydrologic alterations were obtained using time series analysis (TSA) in river analysis package (RAP). Stream-flows of each station were grouped in three clusters according to precipitation patterns in agro-ecological zones and according to the area each stream drained. These clusters were used together with the corresponding temperature data sets for trend analyses and linear regressions. It was found that firstly, there was an upward trend in temperature across the clusters for the temporal window period of the study. Secondly, temperature is a predictor of precipitation and discharge in streams across the country based on the P values (0.10 – 0.50) and r2 values (0.008 – 0.336) obtained from regression and trend analysis. This was observed in 39 hydrological and meteorological gauge stations used. Thirdly, temperature predicts stream-flow in rivers with large catchment areas (>40,000km2) across all agro-ecological zones and perennial rivers in Agroecological zone III. It was further found that temperature does not predict stream-flow of ephemeral streams based on the P values (>0.50) obtained on temperature-discharge relationship of these streams. Based on the findings, it is concluded that temperature has been increasing with time and that it predicts precipitation negatively across the agro-ecological zones in Zambia. Climate variables are characteristic of increasing or decreasing trend in Zambia.
Cobalt recovery from old Nkana Copper Slag via solid state carbothermic reduction and sulphation
(2013-01-18) Mututubanya, Alex
Large quantities of old copper smelting slag containing cobalt exist at Nkana Division of Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines. Recovery of cobalt from the slag would contribute significantly to the economy of Zambia. A literature review, however, indicated that although processes have been developed for the recovery of cobalt from primary ores and converter slags, none have been for dump slags. The potential economic benefits of cobalt recovery and non¬existence of a process for recovery of the metal from dump slags stimulated interest in undertaking the study reported in this thesis. Thermodynamic considerations indicated that cobalt could be recovered from old Nkana copper slag via solid state carbothermic reduction and sulphation. Consequently, sulphation and carbothermic reduction experiments were carried out in the temperature range 600 to 1000°C for times ranging from 1 to 6 hours. The experiments were aimed at determining whether the two processes could be suitable as pretreatment steps in the recovery of cobalt from old Nkana copper slag. In addition to reaction temperature and duration, other experimental parameters investigated were; particle size of the slag, relative amounts of the reactants and for sulphation only, the effect of air flowrate.The extent of carbothermic reduction and sulphation were determined by evaluating the percentage of cobalt solubilized from reacted slag samples leached in sulphuric acid to a terminal pH of 1.4-2.0. Solid state carbothermic reduction was carried out in an inert nitrogen atmosphere with charcoal as a reducing agent. The results obtained indicate that solid state carbothermic reduction produces a partially reduced product which can be selectively leached for cobalt. A fair amount of cobalt was leached (52%) from the -0.60 + 0.150mm fraction of slag reduced with 20 % charcoal at 950 °C for two hours. Difficulties of obtaining higher percentages of cobalt leached were due possibly to the formation, during reduction, of non-leachable cobalt ferrites and carbides. Solid state sulphation of old Nkana copper slag was carried out using pyrite and cobalt sulphide concentrates as sulphating agents. The highest amount of cobalt leached at 72% was obtained from the -0.045mm fraction of slag sulphated with pyrite. A 1:1 slag to pyrite ratio was found to be suitable for the solid state sulphation of old Nkana copper slag. The work reported in this thesis consists of four chapters, which are preceded by an introductory section. Chapter one gives the literature review. Chapters two and three are preceded by theoretical considerations, and discuss the results of solid state carbothermic reduction and sulphation, respectively. Each chapter ends with its own references. Chapter four gives the general conclusions.
Copperfields: a history of the impact of the first decade of mining boom in the North Western province of Zambia CIRCA 2002-2005.
(Canberra, 2019) O'callaghan, Margaret
Data acquisition models for groundwater assessment and management in the urban and rural areas of Zambia
(2012-09-24) Mpamba, Ngosa Howard
Availability of data and information on groundwater is important for sustainable utilization of groundwater resources. Its assessment, development, utilization and management largely depend on data acquisition; the aspect often overlooked or inconsistently carried out in most groundwater development projects in Zambia. The study attempts to develop a model for data acquisition procedure that recognizes three sets of groundwater data and information that need to be collected in a participatory approach in the urban and rural areas of Zambia. The data sets are hydro geological, groundwater quality and groundwater levels. Acquisition of these data sets is approached in two levels. Firstly, collection of the data sets as one entity with the involvement of stakeholders for potential use to support sustainable groundwater resources utilization. Secondly, development of the mechanism as well as tools to facilitate data collection, transmission, storage, analysis and dissemination. The methodology begins from an explicitly empirical conception of using the data set relations to investigate the quantity and quality of groundwater resources. Furthermore, it examines the nature of failure to collect groundwater data and information in Zambia, which has arisen due to mechanisms as well as tools for data acquisition that are weak, inappropriate or non-existent. The approach gives insight into some of the technical standards and regulations required to guide groundwater development and ensure submission of such data and information to relevant institutions. Groundwater occurrence, diversity, abstraction, replenishment and storage have been investigated in the study areas using data sets proposed for acquisition. Groundwater data and information captured with inclusion of global positioning system (GPS), shows that the approach would render existing hydro geological data useful for various analyzes. The main aspects in the collection of the data sets at national scale must: 1)recognize the borehole completion report form as official for collection of hydro geological data; 2)evaluate groundwater quality during construction of every borehole as a national interest, 3)ensure regular water quality evaluation and groundwater level measurement for selected aquifers as well as the national groundwater observation network to provide data to the National Groundwater Data Base to facilitate efficient resource management, 4)Incorporate a borehole numbering system based on the surface water basin blocks in the Zambezi and Congo River Basins, to facilitate sustainable groundwater resources development that recognizes surface and groundwater interaction.The thesis, through evaluation of past and current groundwater development approaches highlights the method used to collect data in the study areas, providing insight that data must be collected in the same manner from boreholes constructed in urban and rural areas of Zambia, as a way of promoting systematic data capture, as well as a better understanding of the economic value of groundwater resources. Furthermore, it reinforces the identified need to establish a Data Base through an integrated approach that allows most stakeholders to collaborate and participate in data acquisition and storage for effective water resources management.
Demonstration of presence of human helminthes and protozoa in faecal matter from pit latrines of selected residential compounds in Lusaka, Zambia
(The University of Zambia, 2020) Mbewe, Zamiwe
The peri-urban on-site sanitation has unique challenges such as: lack of space and resources to construct new pit latrines. To ensure sustainability, the emptying of filled pit latrines is necessary. However, handling faecal matter especially if contaminated is risky. An assessment for helminthes and Protozoa was undertaken on faecal matter from four peri-urban areas of Lusaka, Zambia namely: Kanyama, Madimba, George and Chaisa compounds. The study aimed at finding out whether pit latrine faecal matter is contaminated with helminth ova, larvae and protozoan oocysts. Laboratory examinations through the Ammonium bicarbonate (AMBIC) method; Crystal violet stain and Cryptosporidia species recovery technique detected the presence, type, and viability of ova, larva and oocysts. Data was analysed by excel sheets and the use of statistical paired sample t-tests. It was established that 96% of Kanyama Compound pit latrines had Cryptosporidia species oocysts; 60% had Ascaris species ova which were viable in 4% of the pit latrines. Whereas 20% had Enterobius species ova and 16% had Strongyloides species larva. It was observed, 96% of George Compound pit latrines had Cryptosporidia species oocysts and 68% had Ascaris species ova which were viable in 48% of the pit latrines. Whereas 4% had Enterobius species ova and 4% had Strongyloides species larva. It was noted that 92% of Madimba Compound pit latrines had Cryptosporidia species oocysts and 40% had Ascaris species ova which were viable in 20% of the pit latrines. Whereas 8% had Enterobius species ova; 40% had Cyclospora species and 16% had Strongyloides species larva. Further, it was observed that 96% of Chaisa Compound pit latrines had Cryptosporidia species oocysts and 56% had Ascaris species ova which were viable in 36% of the pit latrines. Whereas 4% had Enterobius species ova and 8% had Strongyloides species larva. Using Ascaris species as indicator parasite, George Compound was the most affected by the parasites as it indicated a highest number of pit latrines with Ascaris species ova with high viability although it showed only 4 types followed by Kanyama Compound despite registering 11 types of parasites. Madimba compound indicated 9 types and Chaisa compounds had 4 types. The four compounds had a substantial enumeration of ova and oocysts with top sludge showing large numbers that reduced with depth. The t-test for paired samples showed that for Chaisa and George compounds, only Ascaris species varied in the mean concentration of top and bottom layer samples; George and Madimba compounds samples only varied in Cryptosporidia species; whereas Kanyama Compound samples showed no variation at all. Faecal matter was found to be contaminated with helminth and protozoa especially in the top layer sand hence not safe to public health, groundwater and the general environment. Key words: Helminth, Protozoa, Faecal matter, Public health and Groundwater.
Design parameters and management strategies of soil and rock slopes: Nchanga open pit-Konkola copper mines plc
(2013-01-18) Banda, Sraj Umar
Rock slope stability is a very important research area for many geo-engineers concerned with civil or mining works. Slope stability of pits, roads, tailings dams and other embankments is very cardinal as it directly impacts on the working or utilisation of these facilities. The Nchanga Open Pit has presented special challenges. This research is directed towards efforts to determine slope design parameters of the Chingola Open Pit F and D (COP F-D) Phase III, which is an important satellite pit of the Nchanga Open Pits. After recent accidents in this mine, attention has been drawn to the need to understand failure mechanisms of the slopes on this site and the need to determine acceptable risks of mining at the designed pit slopes. In addition, further analysis on the management of these slopes is required.COP FD phase II has been operated since 2003 with the slope design parameters projected from phase I (which started in 2001) and as such a need arose to determine specific design parameters for phase III because of variations in geological conditions between Phase I and Phase III. The methodology in this research included reconnaissance surveys, literature review, field work which comprised core logging, mapping, slope monitoring (water table, cracks and slope movements), laboratory testing, data analysis using specialised software and report preparation. In addition, a risk assessment (economic and safety for workers and equipment) was carried out based on Phase II data. Existing slope management strategies were reviewed. Three geotechnical zones based on rock characteristics were established and design parameters (such as cohesion and angles of internal friction) were determined for the zones. Economic risks mainly arose from the costs of repairing ramps and upper benches damaged due to undercutting. Safety risks resulted from the fact that initially the dump (OB 5), was located about a kilometre away from the pit rim but as mining progressed this dump became part of the pit wall on the footwall.Because the upper part of the pit wall was composed of dump material which was unstable, there was a high likelihood of slope failure. Design slope angles have been recommended based on geotechnical zones and a comprehensive rock characterisation. Slope management strategies have been reinforced by recommending better coordination, frequency and effectiveness of monitoring systems. Corrective measures for different rock slope instabilities have also been recommended. Further research work, through numerical modelling, is recommended to give better insight on slope failure mechanisms of the Nchanga Open Pit mining area.
Determining a suitable method for dewatering of ore reserves below 1040ml at Konkola mine, Zambia.
(The University of Zambia, 2019) Makumba, Chella
Konkola Mine is one of the wettest mines in the world. It pumps about 350,000m3 of water per day. From the inception of mining operations in 1956, water has always posed a challenge to mining despite the use of dewatering strategy involving dewatering crosscuts and dewatering boreholes. The groundwater at the mine was mathematically modeled using MODFLOW software in 1989 and predictions of dewatering operations were made for periods of 1989 to 2020. However, in the last two decades, the implementation of the dewatering plan has lagged behind as a result of financial constraints faced by the Mine. The Footwall Aquifer at shaft No. 3 is behind by almost 3 years and the Hangingwall Aquifer at shaft No. 1 is behind by at least 13years. This has resulted in most of the reserves being underwater which poses a safety and mining challenge. The reserves below 1040mL cannot be mined until the Hangingwall Aquifer is dewatered below 1150mL Cave line. The dewatered reserves have almost 2 years to depletion hence this study was undertaken to determine a suitable dewatering method for reserves below 1040mL. The study also sought to establish whether the use of backfilling mining methods would reduce dewatering requirement for the mine. Drawdown simulations were done using the MODFLOW-VKD software. The water table was generated using MicroStation and Geovia Surpac software. The seepage points identified are the Kafue River, Kakosa Stream, discharge canals, Lubengele Dam, and Lubengele Stream. The study has established that more than 194,170m3/d of water could be excluded from seeping through the mine. An analysis of mines that use backfilling methods established that the use of backfill reduces hydraulic inflow paths into a Mine and also reduces the dewatering requirement. The results of the study indicate that the existing conventional dewatering approach (using crosscut and dewatering boreholes) coupled with surface water exclusion methods are the most viable for the reserves below 1040mL as opposed to deep surface wells. It was also found that dewatering requirement could be reduced in the mine by the application of backfill. The approximate cost of Conventional dewatering method (19 crosscuts and 190 boreholes) implementation was less than the cost for the Surface deep holes. Key Word: Mine operations, dewatering, Hangingwall Aquifer, backfilling

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